00088 - Chemistry

Learning outcomes

At the end of the course, the student acquires basic knowledge of the structure of matter and the thermodynamic and kinetic principles that regulate its transformation, as well as the basis for understanding the relationships between structure, properties and reactivity of molecules, with particular reference to aspects related to greenery and landscape. The student is also able to understand, from a molecular point of view, the chemical reactions that occur in the biosphere and to predict the behavior of a molecule as a function of its structure.

Course contents

Prerequisites

Knowledge of the main elementary arithmetic and mathematical functions: fractions, powers, roots, exponentials and logarithms. Scientific notation. Solution of first- and second-degree algebraic equations.

Knowledge of the main physical quantities and the relationships between them, the principal units of measurement of the International System of Units (SI), and commonly used non-SI units. Scalar and vector quantities.

Previous knowledge of chemistry is not a prerequisite for the course.

The Chemistry course is divided into two modules: General and Inorganic Chemistry (Module I) and Organic Chemistry (Module II), each of which is further divided into two units.

CONTENTS OF MODULE I (5 ECTS CREDITS)

Teaching Unit 1: Structure (20 hours)

1.1 Chemical classification of matter

Elements and compounds, pure substances and mixtures. Atomic symbols, atomic number and mass number, isotopes, ions.

1.2 Atomic weight, chemical formulae and the mole

Atomic mass, atomic weight, formula weight and molecular weight; the mole.

1.3 Atomic structure

The hydrogen atom and multi-electron atoms. Orbitals, quantum numbers and electron configurations. Periodic properties.

1.4 Chemical bonding

Covalent bonding: Lewis structures, electronegativity, molecular geometry and polarity; valence bond theory, hybrid orbitals and multiple bonds. Molecular orbital theory: introductory concepts. Ionic bonding and ionic lattices. Metallic bonding: introductory concepts. Intermolecular forces and hydrogen bonding.

1.5 Gases, liquids and solids

Properties of ideal gases and partial pressures; introductory concepts of molecular kinetic theory. Liquids: vapour pressure, melting point and boiling point. Structure and physical properties of solids: introductory concepts. Allotropy and polymorphism. Allotropic forms of the main elements. Phase diagrams and phase transitions.

Teaching Unit 2: Transformations (30 hours)

2.1 Chemical equations and main classes of compounds

Balancing chemical equations, stoichiometric calculations and limiting reagents. Oxidation numbers; oxidation-reduction reactions: principles and balancing. Introduction to the main classes of inorganic compounds: oxides, hydrides, acids, bases and salts.

2.2 Chemical thermodynamics

Heat, work and energy; the first law of thermodynamics, state functions, enthalpy of reaction and formation, standard states and Hess’s law. Spontaneous processes: entropy. The second and third laws of thermodynamics. Gibbs free energy.

2.3 Solutions

Molarity and other ways of expressing concentration. Dilutions. Colligative properties and osmotic pressure. Solubility.

2.4 Chemical equilibrium

Gas-phase equilibria. Complete and incomplete reactions; equilibrium constant, reaction quotient, effect of temperature, Le Châtelier’s principle; meaning and use of the equilibrium constant.

2.5 Equilibria in aqueous solution: acids and bases

Properties of acids and bases according to the Brønsted–Lowry model, conjugate acid-base pairs and amphoteric compounds. Self-ionisation of water. pH: definition and calculation for strong and weak acids and bases; degree of dissociation. Salt hydrolysis and its effect on pH. Buffer solutions and acid-base titrations.

2.6 Solubility equilibria

Behaviour of sparingly soluble salts. Solubility and solubility product. Common-ion effect.

2.7 Electrochemistry

Electrochemical cells, electrodes and standard potentials; introductory concepts of the Nernst equation. Glass electrode for pH measurement. Introductory concepts of electrolysis.

2.8 Chemical kinetics

Reaction rate, rate law and reaction order. Integrated rate equations for first- and second-order reactions. Reaction mechanisms and rate-determining steps. Activation energy, the Arrhenius equation and introductory concepts of collision theory.

CONTENTS OF MODULE II (3 ECTS CREDITS)

Successful completion of Module II of the Chemistry course requires the acquisition of all the topics covered in Module I of General Chemistry. However, in view of specific circumstances, particularly with regard to TPALL students, late-enrolling students and those who attended Module I a considerable time previously or as part of a non-linear study pathway, the initial part of Module II will be devoted to a brief review of the General Chemistry topics required to understand the course.

Teaching Unit 3: Organic Chemistry (18 hours)

• Representation of the structures of organic molecules using expanded and condensed formulae, ball-and-stick models, wedge-and-dash notation, Newman projections and Fischer projections.
• Introduction to the concept of functional groups. Introduction to the basic IUPAC approach to the systematic naming of organic molecules: a suffix for the functional group, a central component indicating the longest carbon chain and prefixes for the remaining substituents.
• Alkanes: nomenclature of linear, branched and cyclic alkanes. Alkenes and alkynes: nomenclature.
• Stereochemistry: definition and geometrical description of isomers, classified as constitutional isomers and stereoisomers; stereoisomers are further divided into geometrical and optical isomers, the latter being subdivided into enantiomers and diastereomers. Cahn–Ingold–Prelog rules for the R/S nomenclature of chiral centres. Cis/trans nomenclature. Chemical and physical properties of isomers; interaction of enantiomers and diastereomers with polarised light. Meso compounds and racemic mixtures. Assignment of chirality to a chiral carbon atom in a molecule represented using a Fischer projection.
• Molecular stability and the use of bomb calorimetry, combustion reactions and hydrogenation reactions. Relationship between molecular structure and stability. Ring strain in cyclic alkanes. Overlap of pi orbitals in alkenes, described through resonance. Effect of steric hindrance on stability.
• Molecules as permanent or temporary dipoles. Secondary chemical interactions: permanent dipole-permanent dipole interactions, temporary dipole-temporary dipole interactions and hydrogen bonding. Relationship between the characteristics of organic molecules and their boiling and melting points.
• Systematic IUPAC nomenclature and traditional or trivial nomenclature of alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, amines, thiols and thioethers. Carbonyl and carboxyl groups.
• How functional groups and molecular structure influence acid-base properties. Inductive and conjugative effects. Role of carbon hybridisation in the acidity of these compounds. Comparison of the acidity of two substances on the basis of the stability of their respective conjugate bases.
• Benzene and aromaticity: description of aromaticity; benzene derivatives; resonance in benzene derivatives; conjugative and inductive effects of substituent groups; effect of substituents on the acid-base properties of selected aromatic molecules. Acidity and basicity of substances: inductive and conjugative effects exerted by the phenyl group and by any substituents attached to it.
• Monosaccharides. Description of their functional groups. D/L nomenclature. Ring closure. Polysaccharides. Formation of glycosides. Formation of dimers. Mutarotation.
• Description of amino acids. D/L nomenclature of amino acids.

Expected learning outcomes

At the end of this teaching unit, students will have acquired the basic theoretical knowledge of the structure of organic matter and of the thermodynamic and kinetic principles governing its transformation. Students will be able to develop original qualitative reasoning on how functional groups and molecular structure affect the properties and reactivity of organic molecules, including molecules not explicitly discussed during the lectures.

Teaching Unit 4: Laboratory Activities (12 hours)

Titration, namely quantitative determination, of a weak-base solution by addition of a strong acid and use of an acid-base indicator.

Separation of three solid substances by exploiting their different solubilities.

Expected learning outcomes

At the end of the laboratory activities, students will have acquired the experience required to understand the practical implications of the concepts learned during the theoretical lessons.

Readings/Bibliography

The teaching materials provided by the lecturers are intended only as an outline of the topics covered during the classes. Consulting university-level textbooks is essential.

For Module I

Title: Chimica
Authors: Ivano Bertini, Claudio Luchinat, Fabrizio Mani
Publisher: CEA
Pages: 512
ISBN: 8840812857
ISBN-13: 978884081285

Title: Viaggio nella Chimica
Authors: Alberto Credi et al.
Publisher: EdiSES
Pages: 481
ISBN: 978 88 3623 111 9

For Module II

Title: Fondamenti di Chimica Organica
Author: Wade
Publisher: Piccin
Notes: Preferred textbook. The course page on the Virtuale platform will indicate, in as much detail as possible, which chapters and/or sections cover the same topics discussed during the lectures.

Title: Chimica Organica
Author: McMurray
Publisher: Zanichelli

Title: Chimica Organica
Author: Solomons
Publisher: Zanichelli

Teaching methods

- Module I (General Chemistry): the Module consists of a single theoretical teaching unit that will take place with lectures that will illustrate the theoretical bases of the various topics and during which exercises will be carried out to apply the notions learned.


- Module II (Organic Chemistry): The Module is divided into two teaching units: the first, theoretical, consists of lectures accompanied by exercises to apply the notions presented. The second teaching unit includes laboratory activities aimed at deepening from an experimental point of view some aspects of the topics covered in class.

Assessment methods

Assessment will take place after the teaching activities of both Modules have been completed. Students will be required to sit two separate examinations, and the final grade will be calculated as the weighted average of the marks obtained in the two assessments.

Module I (General Chemistry)

Learning will be assessed through a final examination designed to verify the acquisition of the expected knowledge and skills. The examination consists of a two-hour written test comprising six exercises on the following topics: IUPAC nomenclature, chemical equations, molecular structures, and numerical problems involving the application of concepts covered during the course, with particular reference to solutions and their properties, pH, solubility, electrochemistry, thermodynamics, and kinetics.

Each exercise contributes a maximum of one point to the total score, which may also be awarded fractionally. The total score for the test, indicated as PT, may therefore range from 0 to 6 points.

The first two exercises, concerning nomenclature and structural formulae, respectively, are compulsory. Fractional scores may also be awarded for these exercises. In the nomenclature exercise, for example, the score will depend on the number of correct answers out of the total number of questions.

For the exercise on molecular structures, students are required to provide the most representative structural formula among the possible resonance contributors, as well as the electron-domain geometry, molecular geometry, hybridisation of the central atom, and bond order between the peripheral atoms and the central atom. Any incorrect or missing information will result in a proportional reduction in the score awarded for that exercise.

The final mark is calculated according to the following formula:

Mark = (PT − 2) × 3 + 18

where PT is the total score obtained in the test.

By way of example, a written test receiving the following scores for the six exercises: 0.8; 0.7; 1; 0.5; 0.8; 1, achieves a PT of 4.8, corresponding to a mark of 26.4, rounded to 26/30.

Honours may be awarded when a mark of 30/30 has been achieved and the written test includes independent observations demonstrating a particularly thorough understanding of the subject matter.

Students may also request the opportunity to improve the mark obtained in the written test by taking an individual oral examination. This option is also available to students who have received a failing mark in the written test, provided that it is not lower than 15/30. The oral examination will begin with the topics addressed in the written test and may cover all topics included in the course syllabus.

Students who pass the written test with a mark between 18/30 and 30/30 may request formal recording of the result within the same examination session, provided that they have also passed the assessment for Module II in Organic Chemistry.

Examinations will be held in person.

Module II (Organic Chemistry)

During the oral examination, students will be asked to discuss the topics covered during the lectures, as presented in the recommended textbooks and in the teaching materials provided. They will be assessed according to the following criteria:
(i) knowledge, understanding, and depth of the topics covered;
(ii) critical thinking and presentation skills;
(iii) correct use of technical and scientific terminology.

The oral examination may be awarded a maximum mark of 30/30, with honours where appropriate. Gaps in knowledge and/or inappropriate use of language, even where a minimum level of knowledge of the examination material is demonstrated, will result in a failing mark.

Examination dates are scheduled within the periods established by the Degree Programme. Students may register for the oral examination exclusively through the procedures provided by the AlmaEsami online system. For further information on registration procedures, please consult the AlmaEsami platform.

Teaching tools

Module I (General Chemistry) - Video projectors, blackboard in the classroom. Sharing of slides and other lesson files from the site containing the teacher's teaching material on the UNIBO Portal.


Module II (Organic Chemistry) - As comprehensive a set of teaching materials as possible will be made available through the University of Bologna’s “Virtuale” platform, and in particular on the page of the “Chemistry” course taught by Professor Francesco Capozzi, who is responsible for Module I and for the formal recording of the final grade for the course as a whole. The Wade textbook will be used actively and consistently as a core teaching resource.

Office hours

See the website of Francesco Capozzi

See the website of Luca Laghi