00443 - General Physiology

Course contents

CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY

Teacher: Marco Caprini

 

Diffusion and transport across the plasma membrane

Composition of intracellular and extracellular compartments. Homeostasis. Functional features of the plasma membrane. Mechanisms of diffusion and transport across the plasma membrane. Osmosis. Plasma membrane ion channels. Membrane receptors.

 

Ionic equilibria and membrane potentials

Ion fluxes and ion equilibria. Physico-chemical bases of the resting membrane potential. Role of the sodium-potassium pump. Graded potentials. Pacemaker activity.  Action-potential: origin and propagation in myelinated and unmyelinated axons. 

 

Synaptic transmission

Chemical and electrical synapses. Presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms of chemical transmission. Postsynaptic excitatory and inhibitory potentials. Neurotransmitters: synthesis, release, interaction with membrane receptors, inactivation. 

 

Sensory receptors 

Mechanisms of signal transduction. Classification of sensory receptors. Primary sensory coding: type of stimulus, intensity, duration and localization. 

 

Skeletal muscle cell

Structure of the skeletal muscle cell. Neuromuscular synaptic transmission. Excitation-contraction coupling. Molecular mechanism of contraction. Graduation of strength in the muscle contraction. Skeletal muscle cell metabolism.

 

Smooth muscle cell

Structure of the smooth muscle cell. Single-unit and multi-unit smooth muscles. Molecular mechanisms and control of contraction. Pacemaker activity and neural, hormonal, mechanical and chemical modulation of single-unit smooth muscles contraction. 

   

 

 

SISTEM PHYSIOLOGY

Teacher: Giorgio Aicardi

 

Nervous system

 

Anatomo-functional organization of the nervous system

Principal functional elements of the nervous system. Classification of neurons, nerve fibers and glial cells. Functional organization of the central and peripheral nervous system. Blood-brain barrier.

 

Sensory systems

General principles of sensory physiology. Functional organization of the sensory systems. Somatosensory (touch, proprioception, interoception, thermoception, pain), visual, auditory, vestibular, gustatory and olfactory systems: adequate stimuli, specific receptors, mechanisms of signal transduction, ascending neural pathways, cortical representation and elaboration.

 

Somatic motor nervous system

Functional organization of the somatic motor nervous system. Reflex arcs, reflex motor responses, central control of reflexes.  Posture and locomotor movements. Voluntary movements: central and peripheral control.

 

Autonomic nervous system  

Anatomo-functional organization of the autonomic nervous system: sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric sections. Pre- and post-ganglionic neurotransmitters. Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic receptors. Alpha and beta adrenergic receptors. Effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation on different organs. Autonomic reflexes.  

 

Higher functions of the nervous system

Association areas of the cerebral cortex. Limbic sytem. Emotions, mood, vigilance, attention, function of nervous ascending pathways. Electroencephalography, wake-sleep cycle. Learning, memory, synaptic plasticity.

 

 

Cardiovascular system  

 

Organization of cardiovascular system  

Scheme of the cardiovascular system. Characteristics of the systemic and pulmonary circulation. Blood composition, volume and functions. Hematic cells. Hemostasis.

 

Electrical activity of the heart  

Electrical characteristics of cardiac cells. Origin and spread of cardiac excitation. Refractory period of the heart. Control of excitation and conduction in the heart. Electrocardiography. 

 

Mechanical activity of the heart  

Functional anatomy of the heart. Mechanical events of the cardiac cycle. Blood pressure and blood volume in atria and ventricles.  

 

Control of cardiac output  

Cardiac output: normal values and range of variation. Mechanisms of regulation of cardiac output: control of heart rate and stroke volume.

 

Vascular system

Characteristics and functions of the vascular system: arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins and lymphatic vessels. Hemodynamics: relation between flow, pressure and resistance. Pressure profile in the systemic circulation. Return of venous blood to the heart. Diffusion across the capillary wall. Regulation of local blood flow.  

 

Regulation of blood arterial pressure      

Normal values and range of variation of the blood arterial pressure. Mechanisms of regulation of arterial pressure.

 

 

Respiratory system  

 

Pulmonary ventilation  

Functional anatomy of the respiratory system. Characteristics and functions of the conducting zone and alveolar walls. Mechanics of pulmonary ventilation. Changes of alveolar and intrapleural pressure during respiratory cycle. Ventilation and alveolar perfusion.  Lung volumes and capacities.

 

Exchanges of gases in lungs and tissues  

Composition of atmospheric and alveolar air. Ultrastructure of the air-blood barrier. Physical and biological factors involved in oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange in lungs and tissues.  

 

Blood transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide  

Transport of oxygen in the blood. Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve, functional implications and regulatory factors. Transport of carbon dioxide in the blood and regulatory factors.

 

Control mechanisms of respiratory activity  

Neurogenesis of the respiratory rhythm. Brainstem and encephalic structures involved in breathing control. Nervous modulation of rhythmical breathing: nervous centers and afferent nervous signals. Central and peripheral chemoreceptors, breathing control by carbon dioxide, pH and oxygen.  

 

 

Urinary system  

 

Basic renal processes  

Functional anatomy of the kidney. Processes involved in urine production. Glomerular filtration: glomerular filtration barrier, velocity of filtration, physiological control of glomerular filtration. Tubular reabsorption and secretion.  Renal clearance.   

 

Diuresis  regulation

Mechanisms of diuresis regulation. Mechanism of urine concentration: the loop of Henle and the countercurrent multiplier system. Regulation of renal water and sodium reabsorption.  

 

Regulation of acid-base balance  

Biological buffer systems. Respiratory and renal homeostatic response to variations of the acid-base equilibrium.  

 

 

 

INTEGRATED PHYSIOLOGY

Teacher: Giorgio Aicardi

 

Endocrine and reproductive functions

 

Neuroendocrine integrated functions  

General principles of hormonal physiology. Mechanisms of hormonal action. Mechanisms of control of hormonal secretion. Role of hypothalamus and pituitary gland on the control of hormone secretion. 

 

Physiological functions of hormones  

Physiological functions of pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pancreatic hormones.

 

Female reproductive system 

Functional anatomy of the female reproductive system. Ovarian cycle. Estrogen and progesterone functions. Endometrial cycle. Hypothalamic control of ovarian function. Fertilization. Hormonal factors during pregnancy, delivery and lactation.    

 

Male reproductive system  

Functional anatomy of the male reproductive system. Spermatogenesis. Seminal fluid. Testosterone functions. Hypothalamic control of testicular function.  

 

Thermoregulation

Mechanisms of heat production and dissipation in the body. The normal body temperature. Factors that alter the body temperature. Body temperature regulation. Fever.

 

Experimental activities  

Functional activity of neurons. Electromyography. Electrocardiography. Measure of the blood arterial pressure. Spirometry. 

Readings/Bibliography

Suggested textbook: E. Carbone, F. Cicirata, G. Aicardi, Fisiologia: dalle molecole ai sistemi integrati, EdiSES, 2009.

Office hours

See the website of Giorgio Aicardi

See the website of Marco Caprini