- Docente: Elisabetta Ciani
- Credits: 10
- SSD: BIOS-06/A
- Language: Italian
- Moduli: Elisabetta Ciani (Modulo 1) Stefania Trazzi (Modulo 2) Stefania Trazzi (Modulo 3)
- Teaching Mode: In-person learning (entirely or partially) In-person learning (entirely or partially) (Modulo 1); In-person learning (entirely or partially) (Modulo 2); In-person learning (entirely or partially) (Modulo 3)
- Campus: Bologna
- Corso: Single cycle degree programme (LMCU) in School of Dentistry (cod. 6738)
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from Oct 01, 2026 to Dec 11, 2026
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from Oct 14, 2026 to Dec 03, 2026
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from Nov 02, 2026 to Nov 27, 2026
Learning outcomes
At the end of the course, students will have acquired the knowledge required to understand the physiological mechanisms underlying the functioning of the human body and the stomatognathic system. Students will be able to interpret the main physiological processes at the cellular, organ, and systemic levels; understand the mechanisms of cellular communication; describe the functions of the nervous, cardiovascular, respiratory, renal, and digestive systems; and relate the functions of the stomatognathic apparatus to the general physiology of the human body. These competencies will provide the basis for understanding subsequent pathophysiological and clinical disciplines.
Course contents
BIOPHYSICS
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
Ionic composition of intracellular and extracellular fluids. Selective permeability of the cell membrane. Electrochemical equilibrium: determination of the equilibrium potentials of the major ions using the Nernst equation. Relationship between membrane permeability to diffusible ions and membrane potential: membrane conductance equation. Functions of the sodium–potassium pump.
ACTION POTENTIAL
Excitable membranes and voltage-gated ion channels. Generation of the action potential: threshold potential and regenerative mechanism. Ionic conductances and ion fluxes during the different phases of the action potential. Membrane excitability cycle: refractory periods. Propagation of the action potential.
SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
Electrical synapses. Chemical synapses: mechanisms of neurotransmitter release. Membrane receptors. Effects of neurotransmitter binding to ionotropic and metabotropic receptors. Excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. Spatial and temporal summation of postsynaptic potentials. Presynaptic inhibition. Classes of neurotransmitters. Neuromuscular transmission.
SENSORY RECEPTORS
Classification of sensory receptors. Adequate stimulus and threshold of activation. Mechanisms of sensory transduction and relationship between receptor potential amplitude and frequency of propagated signals in afferent pathways. Receptor adaptation. Receptive fields.
PHYSIOLOGY OF SKELETAL AND SMOOTH MUSCLE
Activation of the contractile mechanism. Isometric and isotonic contractions. Muscle twitch and tetanic contraction. Length–tension relationship. Skeletal muscle innervation. Motor unit. Grading of muscle force. Classification of smooth muscle. Activation of the contractile mechanism. Neural and humoral regulation of contraction.
NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
MECHANORECEPTIVE SENSATION
Receptors and afferent fibers mediating tactile and kinesthetic sensation. Organization of the sensory pathways involved in mechanoreception. Somatosensory cortical areas.
PAIN SENSATION
Receptors and afferent fibers involved in nociception. Organization of pain pathways. Types of pain. Hyperalgesia. Endogenous and peripheral mechanisms of pain control.
GENERAL SENSATION OF THE FACE AND ORAL CAVITY
Tactile, thermal and pain sensation of the face and oral cavity. Sensory nerves. Central sensory pathways.
SPECIAL SENSES: TASTE AND SMELL
Taste receptors. Taste transduction mechanisms. Gustatory pathways. Olfactory receptors. Olfactory transduction mechanisms. Olfactory pathways.
SPINAL REFLEXES
Stretch reflex, muscle tone, and role of gamma motor innervation. Inverse stretch reflex. Flexor reflex and crossed extensor reflex.
MOTOR CONTROL
The motor neuron as the final common pathway. Organization of descending motor pathways. Lateral and medial motor systems and their functions. Cortical control of movement.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Anatomical and functional organization of the autonomic nervous system. Neurotransmitters and receptors. Autonomic innervation of major organs. Sympathetic and parasympathetic actions.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
MASTICATION
Muscles and mechanics of mastication. Neural control of mastication. Masticatory reflexes.
SWALLOWING
Phases of swallowing and their control. Disorders of swallowing.
GASTRIC AND INTESTINAL MOTILITY
The enteric nervous system. Gastric filling and emptying. Regulation of gastric emptying. Segmentation and peristaltic movements of the small intestine. Colonic motility. Neural and humoral regulation of intestinal motility. Defecation.
SECRETION, DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION IN THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Salivary secretion. Gastric secretion. Neural and humoral regulation of salivary and gastric secretions. Composition and functions of pancreatic juice. Neural and humoral regulation of pancreatic secretion. Composition and functions of bile. Neural and humoral regulation of biliary secretion. Digestive and absorptive functions of the different segments of the gastrointestinal tract.
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
HEMODYNAMICS
Organizational principles of the cardiovascular system. Laminar flow and Hagen–Poiseuille’s law. Resistance in the systemic and pulmonary circulations. Blood velocity and pressure in the different vascular segments. Systemic vascular resistances (series and parallel arrangements). Blood viscosity. Turbulent flow.
ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE AND ITS REGULATION
Reflex regulation of arterial blood pressure: localization, structure, and functional characteristics of aortic and carotid baroreceptors; cardiac and vasomotor reflexes originating from aortic and carotid baroreceptors. Reflexes originating from atrial receptors and thoracic vessels. Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system.
BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT (Laboratory Session)
Measurement of arterial blood pressure using the Riva-Rocci sphygmomanometric method. Systolic, diastolic, and pulse pressure.
ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY OF THE HEART
Electrical activity of the specialized cardiac conduction system (nodal tissue and Purkinje fibers) and working myocardium. Relationship between electrical and mechanical events in cardiac muscle cells. Generation and conduction of cardiac excitation. Effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation on cardiac electrical and mechanical activity.
CARDIAC CYCLE
Relationship between electrical and mechanical events during the cardiac cycle. Valve movements, atrial and ventricular pressures, and chamber volumes during the different phases of the cardiac cycle. Duration of the phases of the cardiac cycle. Heart sounds and their origin.
ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY (Laboratory Session)
Physical principles of electrocardiography: volume conductor, equivalent electrical dipole, and electrical vector. Recording techniques: bipolar, augmented unipolar, and precordial leads. Interpretation of ECG waveforms in different leads. Determination of the mean electrical axis.
RENAL SYSTEM
ANALYSIS OF RENAL FUNCTION
Functional anatomy of the kidney. The nephron. Mechanisms of urine formation. Renal clearance. Measurement of glomerular filtration rate and renal plasma flow. Filtration fraction.
FILTRATION PROCESS
Structure of the renal glomerulus. Mechanisms underlying ultrafiltration. Composition of the ultrafiltrate. Filtrate-to-plasma ratio. Assessment of filtered load.
TUBULAR FUNCTIONS
Mechanisms of tubular reabsorption and secretion. Sodium chloride and water transport along the nephron. Regulation of sodium chloride and water reabsorption.
URINE CONCENTRATION AND DILUTION
Osmolarity of body fluids. Osmolarity in the renal cortex and medulla. Mechanisms of urine concentration and dilution. Antidiuretic hormone.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
PULMONARY VENTILATION
Functional anatomy of the respiratory system. Functions of the airways. Respiratory muscles and their innervation. Inspiration. Functional significance of diaphragmatic and costal breathing. Expiration. Anatomical dead space. Pulmonary and alveolar ventilation.
RESPIRATORY MECHANICS
Changes in alveolar pressure and airflow during the respiratory cycle. Pleural pressure and its variations during breathing. Lung compliance. Contribution of surface tension to lung elasticity. Surfactant and its physiological significance.
SPIROMETRY (Laboratory Session)
Measurement of lung volumes and capacities.
PULMONARY GAS EXCHANGE
Composition of inspired air and alveolar air. Structure of the alveolar–capillary membrane. Partial pressures of gases in alveoli and pulmonary capillaries. Diffusion of gases across the alveolar–capillary membrane. Quantitative aspects of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange.
OXYGEN TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD
Forms of oxygen transport in the blood. Functional significance of the hemoglobin dissociation curve. Quantitative aspects of oxygen transport. Hypoxia. Interaction between oxygen and carbon dioxide transport (Bohr effect).
CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD
Forms of carbon dioxide transport in the blood. Functional significance of the carbon dioxide dissociation curve. Quantitative aspects of carbon dioxide transport. Interaction between carbon dioxide and oxygen transport (Haldane effect).
NEURAL AND CHEMICAL REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
Bulbar and pontine respiratory centers. Respiratory reflexes. Peripheral and central chemoreceptors and their role in the regulation of pulmonary ventilation.
Readings/Bibliography
(Italian edition: Fisiologia di Berne e Levy, Casa Editrice Ambrosiana).
Teaching methods
The course consists of lectures supported by visual and multimedia teaching materials, as well as practical laboratory sessions aimed at introducing students to the principles and methods used to assess cardiovascular and respiratory functions in humans. All teaching materials used during the course are made available to students through the University’s Virtual Learning Environment (Virtuale).
Given the nature of the activities and teaching methods adopted, participation in this course requires prior completion of Modules 1 and 2 of the University’s health and safety training programme for study and training environments. The training is delivered online and is available at: https://elearning-sicurezza.unibo.it/ .
Assessment methods
Students may take an intermediate examination covering the topics of Cellular Physiology and Neurophysiology addressed during the first part of the course. The intermediate examination consists of a 44-item true/false multiple-choice test.
The score is calculated as follows:
- 1 point for each correct answer;
- −0.6 points for each incorrect answer;
- 0 points for unanswered questions.
The final score is converted into a mark out of 30. The intermediate examination is considered passed with a minimum score of 18/30.
Students who accept the mark obtained in the intermediate examination will take the final oral examination only on the remaining topics of the course.
Students who do not take the intermediate examination, or who do not accept the mark obtained, will be required to take an oral examination covering the entire course syllabus.
Assessment will be based on the accuracy of the acquired knowledge, the ability to integrate concepts across different physiological systems, and the appropriate use of scientific terminology.
Students with specific learning disorders (SLD) or temporary/permanent disabilities are encouraged to contact the University's dedicated support services (https://site.unibo.it/studenti-con-disabilita-e-dsa/en/for-students ) well in advance of the examination date in order to arrange any necessary accommodations, in accordance with the learning objectives of the course.
Teaching tools
Lectures are supported by a digital projector and a personal computer. The visual and textual teaching materials used during lectures are made available electronically through the University of Bologna online learning platform (https://iol.unibo.it/ ).
Access to these materials is restricted to University of Bologna students and requires authentication through institutional credentials (username and password).
Office hours
See the website of Elisabetta Ciani
See the website of Stefania Trazzi
See the website of Stefania Trazzi