27214 - Physics Experimentations 2

Learning outcomes

By the end of the course, students will have a general understanding of the basic principles and both theoretical and practical aspects of analog and digital electronics, as well as of selected instrumentation and detection devices used in astronomical observations (radio telescopes and CCD). Students will also develop the ability to use essential measurement instruments, particularly oscilloscopes and multimeters, to carry out basic measurements on electronic circuits.

Course contents

The course includes lectures, tutorials, and laboratory sessions.
In particular, after approximately one month of lectures, tutorials and laboratory activities will begin and run in parallel with the remaining lectures.

The course content is organized into the following general topics:

1. Analog Electronics.
2. Semiconductors, Diodes, and Transistors.
3. Digital Logic Electronics.
4. Instruments for Astrophysical Data Acquisition.

More specifically, the course will cover the following topics:

1. Analog Electronics (approximately 6–7 lectures) -
Basic concepts of classical electromagnetism; resistance, capacitance, inductance; voltage and current sources; Kirchhoff’s laws; series and parallel connections; voltage divider. Transient behavior in DC circuits: RC circuits (charging and discharging); RL circuits (switching on/off); LC oscillating circuits. AC voltages and currents: introduction to complex formalism; series RLC circuits and complex impedance; impedance in purely resistive, capacitive, and inductive circuits; resonant circuits; introduction to two-port networks, transfer function and decibel definition; general solution of two-port networks; filters, example of low-pass and high-pass filters.

2. Semiconductors, Diodes, and Transistors (approximately 6–7 lectures) -
Introduction to semiconductors: band structure theory; conductors, semiconductors, insulators; drift current and electron gas model; intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors; p-type and n-type doping; diffusion current. Introduction to diodes: open-circuit p-n junction, forward and reverse bias; diode I-V characteristics and threshold voltage calculation; explanation of the first lab exercise (measurement of the I-V characteristics of silicon and germanium diodes); load line and operating point; analysis of diode circuits using circuit models; Zener diodes; half-wave and full-wave rectifiers (diode bridge); single and dual-level clipping circuits; explanation of the second lab exercise (construction of a dual-level clipping circuit). Introduction to transistors: transistor classification; BJT operation, currents, gain, input/output characteristics; FETs, example of enhancement-mode PMOS.

[During this phase of the lectures, laboratory sessions will begin. In particular, following an introduction to the lab instrumentation, the first two lab exercises will consist of measuring the I-V characteristics of two diodes and building a dual-level clipping circuit.]

3. Digital Logic Electronics (approximately 3–4 lectures) -
Binary number system; AND, OR, NOT gates; Boolean algebra; De Morgan’s laws; canonical forms of logic functions; combinational logic circuits (e.g., implementation of XOR gate); binary addition, half-adder and full-adder; serial and parallel adders; encoders and decoders, BCD-to-decimal decoder, decimal-to-BCD encoder; multiplexers; explanation of the third lab exercise (construction of a multiplexer).

[After this phase of the lectures, the third and final lab exercise will be conducted, consisting of building a four-input multiplexer.]

4. Instruments for Astrophysical Data Acquisition: Basics of Radio Telescopes and CCDs (approximately 3–4 lectures) -
Introduction to radio telescopes: astronomy in the radio window; electromagnetic radiation from accelerated charges; dipole radiation; antenna fundamentals and performance; aperture power pattern; basic interferometry; power pattern of multi-element interferometers; the Very Large Array; example of a recent major interferometric observation: the first image of a black hole (M87). Introduction to CCDs: photoelectric effect, charge transfer, differences between CCD and CMOS sensors.

[Students will have the opportunity to take part in an optional visit to the Medicina radio telescopes at the end of the course.]

Note: Laboratory exercises constitute an essential part of the course. Attendance at lab sessions is mandatory, and students are required to submit written reports prior to the oral examination.

Readings/Bibliography

- "Microelettronica", J. Millman - A. Grabel, Mc Graw-Hill

- "Introduzione all'elettronica - Parte I: elettronica digitale", E. Franchini - V. Flaminio - C. Roda - F. Spinella, Edizioni ETS.

- "Elettronica di Millman", J. Millman, A. Grabel, P. Terreni, McGraw-Hill, Quarta ed., 2008

- "La fisica di Feynman", R. Feynman - R. Leighton - M. Sands, ed. Zanichelli.

- "Essential Radio Astronomy" (ERA), J. J. Condon – S. M. Ransom,
https://science.nrao.edu/opportunities/courses/era

- "Scientific Charge Coupled Devices", J. R. Janesick , 2001

Note: The texts listed above have been used in the preparation of the lectures and are recommended as supplementary reading, particularly useful for non-attending students. However, they are not strictly required for the exam. The material provided on the "Virtuale" platform, including a course handout on analog electronics and all the notes and slides presented during lectures, is sufficient for exam preparation, especially for attending students.

Teaching methods

•  In-person lectures with the use of electronic teaching materials.

• Participation in laboratory activities in groups of two students (maximum three if necessary).

• Considering the nature of the activities and the teaching methods adopted, attendance in this training activity requires all students to have previously completed Safety Training Modules 1 and 2 for study environments, available online at [https://elearning-sicurezza.unibo.it/ ] via e-learning.

Assessment methods

The oral exam takes place at the blackboard and lasts about 40–45 minutes. Students are required to submit written lab reports prior to the oral exam. The exam always begins with a discussion of the three lab reports prepared by the candidate. This is followed by four questions, each corresponding to one of the general topics covered in the course. Students are expected to demonstrate the ability to carry out proofs and perform calculations related to the topics addressed during the lectures.

Candidates may withdraw from the exam at any time and choose to retake it at a later date. Similarly, the instructor reserves the right to interrupt the exam and not assign a grade if the candidate's preparation is deemed insufficient. If the exam is completed successfully, the final grade will take into account both the quality of the submitted lab reports and the student's performance during the oral discussion.

Grading Scale:

18–19: Basic understanding of a limited number of course topics; analytical ability limited to qualitative reasoning and emerging only with significant guidance from the instructor; language use not always appropriate.

20–24: Basic understanding of a limited number of topics; some independent analytical ability, mainly qualitative; generally correct use of terminology.

25–29: Broad understanding of the course content; independent ability to critically and quantitatively analyze problems; confident use of technical vocabulary.

30–30L: Comprehensive and rigorous understanding of all course topics (including all general topics and lab reports); strong independent analytical and quantitative reasoning; full mastery of subject-specific terminology; well-structured arguments and ability to make interdisciplinary connections.

Note: Students may reject the proposed grade up to two times. After a third exam attempt, the grade assigned in that session will be automatically recorded.

Exam Registration Guidelines

Only students who have participated in all scheduled laboratory sessions and submitted the corresponding lab reports are eligible to take the oral exam. Lab reports must be submitted electronically (as PDF attachments via email to the instructor) by the deadline indicated on AlmaEsami, typically five days before the scheduled exam date.

Late registration requests will not be accepted, except for duly documented exceptions. For organizational reasons, students who decide not to attend the exam after registering are kindly asked to remove their names from the list in advance.


Students with learning disabilities or temporary or permanent disabilities: please contact the relevant University office promptly (https://site.unibo.it/studenti-con-disabilita-e-dsa/it). The office will advise students of possible adjustments, that will be submitted to the professor for approval 15 days in advance. He/she will evaluate their suitability also in relation to the academic objectives of the course.

Teaching tools

- Educational electronics laboratory

- Electronic teaching materials on specific topics

Office hours

See the website of Myriam Gitti