67176 - Physiology and Nutrition Physiology

Course contents

Part I: PHYSIOLOGY I

Teacher: Marco Caprini

 

 

Cellular physiology

 

Diffusion and transport across the plasma membrane

Composition of intracellular and extracellular compartments. Homeostasis. Functional features of the plasma membrane. Mechanisms of diffusion and transport across the plasma membrane. Osmosis. Plasma membrane ion channels. Membrane receptors.

 

Ionic equilibria and membrane potentials

Ion fluxes and ion equilibria. Physico-chemical bases of the resting membrane potential. Role of the sodium-potassium pump. Graded potentials. Pacemaker activity.  Action-potential: origin and propagation in myelinated and unmyelinated axons. 

 

Synaptic transmission

Chemical and electrical synapses. Presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms of chemical transmission. Postsynaptic excitatory and inhibitory potentials. Neurotransmitters: syntesis, release, interaction with membrane receptors, inactivation. 

 

Sensory receptors 

Mechanisms of signal trasduction. Classification of sensory receptors. Primary sensory coding: type of stimulus, intensity, duration and localization. 

 

Skeletal muscle cell

Structure of the skeletal muscle cell. Neuromuscular synaptic transmission. Excitation-contraction coupling. Molecular mechanism of contraction. Graduation of strength in the muscle contraction. Skeletal muscle cell metabolism.

 

Smooth muscle cell

Structure of the smooth muscle cell. Single-unit and multi-unit smooth muscles. Molecular mechanisms and control of contraction. Pacemaker activity and neural, hormonal, mechanical and chemical modulation of single-unit smooth muscles contraction. 

  

 

Nervous system

 

Anatomo-functional organization of the nervous system

Principal functional elements of the nervous system. Cells of the nervous system.

 

Sensory systems

General principles of sensory physiology. Functional organization of the sensory systems.

 

Somatic motor nervous system

Central and peripheral control of skeletal muscles contraction. Reflex arc, spinal reflexes.

 

Autonomic nervous system  

Anatomo-functional organization of the autonomic nervous system: orthosympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric sections. Effects of orthosympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation on different organs.

 

Higher functions of the nervous system

Functions of cerebral cortex and limbic system.

 

 

 

Part II: PHYSIOLOGY II

Teacher: Giorgio Aicardi

 

Endocrine system

 

Neuroendocrine integrated functions  

General principles of hormonal physiology. Mechanisms of hormonal action. Mechanisms of control of hormonal secretion. Role of hypothalamus and pituitary gland on the control of hormone secretion. 

 

Physiological functions of hormones  

Physiological functions of pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pancreatic hormones.

 

Thermoregulation

Mechanisms of heat production and dissipation in the body. The normal body temperature. Factors that alter the body temperature. Body temperature regulation. Fever.

 

 

Reproductive system

 

Female reproductive functions  

Functional anatomy of the female reproductive system. Ovarian cycle. Estrogen and progesterone functions. Endometrial cycle. Hypothalamic control of ovarian function. Fertilization. Hormonal factors during pregnancy, delivery and lactation.    

 

Male reproductive functions  

Functional anatomy of the male reproductive system. Spermatogenesis. Seminal fluid. Testosterone functions. Hypothalamic control of testicular function.  

 

 

Cardiovascular system  

 

Organization of cardiovascular system  

Scheme of the cardiovascular system. Characteristics of the systemic and pulmonary circulation.

 

Electrical activity of the heart  

Electrical characteristics of cardiac cells. Origin and spread of cardiac excitation. Refractory period of the heart. Control of excitation and conduction in the heart. Electrocardiography. 

 

Mechanical activity of the heart  

Functional anatomy of the heart. Mechanical events of the cardiac cycle. Blood pressure and blood volume in atria and ventricles.  

 

Control of cardiac output  

Cardiac output: normal values and range of variation. Mechanisms of regulation of cardiac output: control of heart rate and stroke volume.

 

Vascular system

Characteristics and functions of the vascular system: arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins and lymphatic vessels. Hemodynamics: relation between flow, pressure and resistance. Pressure profile in the systemic circulation. Return of venous blood to the heart. Diffusion across the capillary wall. Regulation of local blood flow.  

 

Regulation of blood arterial pressure      

Normal values and range of variation of the blood arterial pressure. Mechanisms of regulation of arterial pressure.

 

 

Respiratory system  

 

Pulmonary ventilation  

Functional anatomy of the respiratory system. Characteristics and functions of the conducting zone and alveolar walls. Mechanics of pulmonary ventilation. Changes of alveolar and intrapleural pressure during respiratory cycle. Ventilation and alveolar perfusion.  Lung volumes and capacities.

 

Exchanges of gases in lungs and tissues  

Composition of atmospheric and alveolar air. Ultrastructure of the air-blood barrier.. Physical and biological factors involved in oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange in lungs and tissues.  

 

Blood transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide  

Transport of oxygen in the blood. Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve, functional implications and regulatory factors. Transport of carbon dioxide in the blood and regulatory factors.

 

Control mechanisms of respiratory activity  

Neurogenesis of the respiratory rhythm. Brainstem and encephalic structures involved in breathing control. Nervous modulation of rythmical breathing: nervous centers and afferent nervous signals. Central and peripheral chemoreceptors, breathing control by carbon dioxide, pH and oxygen.  

 

 

Urinary system  

 

Basic renal processes  

Functional anatomy of the kidney. Processes involved in urine production. Glomerular filtration: glomerular filtration barrier, velocity of filtration, physiological control of glomerular filtration. Tubular reabsorption and secretion.  Renal clearance.  

 

Diuresis  regulation

Mechanisms of diuresis regulation. Mechanism of urine concentration: the loop of Henle and the countercurrent multiplier system. Regulation of renal water and sodium reabsorption.  

 

 

Part III: PHYSIOLOGY OF NUTRITION

Teacher: Michela Gamberini

 

Gastrointestinal system

 

Functional anatomy of gastrointestinal system

Structure of the gastrointestinal tract wall. Splanchnic circulation. Innervation of gastrointestinal system. Nervous regulation of functions of gastrointestinal system: enteric nervous system, sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation, reflex activity. Hormonal regulation of gastrointestinal functions.

 

Motility of gastrointestinal system

Chewing. Swallowing. Motility of esophagus. Gastric motility: filling of stomach, movements of mixing and emptying of gastric contents. Vomiting. Emptying of gall bladder. Motility of small intestine, of large intestine and of rectum. Defecation.

 

Secretion of gastrointestinal system

Salivary secretion: functions of saliva, secretion mechanisms and their regulation in physiological conditions. Gastric secretion. Hydrochloric acid: its functions, secretion mechanism and its regulation in physiological conditions. Pepsinogen: its functions, secretion

mechanism and its regulation in physiological conditions. Mucus secretion. Gastrin secretion. Pancreatic secretion: mechanisms of exocrine pancreatic secretion. Bicarbonate ions in pancreatic secretion; enzymes in pancreatic secretion. Regulation of pancreatic secretion in physiological conditions. Bile secretion: bile salts and their rule in digestive process. Intestinal secretions.

 

Digestion and absorption

Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. Digestion and absorption of proteins. Digestion and absorption of fats; role of bile salts in digestion and absorption of fats. Absorption of water and minerals: regulation of intestinal absorption of water and ions. Absorption of calcium and iron.

 

 

Hypothalamic control of food and water intake and eating disorders

 

Regulation of food and water intake

Nervous centers controlling food and water intake. Factors controlling the amount of food. Mechanism of thirst. Short and long-term regulation.

 

Regulation of body weight

Energy balance. Body composition and few methods for its assessment. Loss of weight and effects on fat mass and fat-free mass.

 

Alimentary behaviour

Alimentary behaviour disorders: anorexia nervosa, bulimia, binge-eating disorder. Obesity and its causes. Obesity and pregnancy. Caloric restriction. Useful methods to loose weight. Brown fat: functions and metabolism. Diabetes mellitus.

 

 

Energy Metabolism and Nutritional comsumption

Metabolism Basal metabolic rate. Energy metabolism and its regulation systems. Direct calorimetry. Indirect calorimetry. Factors that influence energy metabolism.

Nutritional consumption in particular physiological states: diet during early childhood, adolescence; pregnancy, feeding; in sport; during third age. Introduction to artificial nutrition: enteral and parenteral nutrition.

Readings/Bibliography

Suggested booktext: E. Carbone, F. Cicirata, G. Aicardi, Fisiologia: dalle molecole ai sistemi integrati, EdiSES, 2009.

Office hours

See the website of Giorgio Aicardi

See the website of Marco Caprini

See the website of Michela Gamberini