00444 - Human Physiology

Learning outcomes

At the end of the course the student: - has a good knowledge of the neurophysiological bases of behavior, and the sensory, cognitive and emotional interactions between humans and the environment; - knows the functional mechanisms of organs and systems; - is able to integrate this knowledge to understand the neuroendocrine control mechanisms of vegetative functions. Practical exercises in which direct measurement of functional parameters is carried out in humans and in experimental models allow him a deeper understanding of the topics covered.

Course contents

Module 1: CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY

Teacher: Marco Caprini

Diffusion and transport across the plasma membrane

Composition of intracellular and extracellular compartments. Homeostasis. Functional features of the plasma membrane. Mechanisms of diffusion and transport across the plasma membrane. Osmosis. Plasma membrane ion channels. Membrane receptors.

Ionic equilibria and membrane potentials

Ion fluxes and ion equilibria. Physico-chemical bases of the resting membrane potential. Role of the sodium-potassium pump. Graded potentials. Pacemaker activity. Action potential: origin and propagation in myelinated and unmyelinated axons.

Synaptic transmission

Chemical and electrical synapses. Presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms of chemical transmission. Postsynaptic excitatory and inhibitory potentials. Neurotransmitters: synthesis, release, interaction with membrane receptors, inactivation.

Skeletal muscle cell

Structure of the skeletal muscle cell. Neuromuscular synaptic transmission. Excitation-contraction coupling. Molecular mechanism of contraction. Graduation of strength in the muscle contraction. Skeletal muscle cell metabolism.

Smooth muscle cell

Structure of the smooth muscle cell. Single-unit and multi-unit smooth muscles. Molecular mechanisms and control of contraction. Pacemaker activity and neural, hormonal, mechanical and chemical modulation of single-unit smooth muscles contraction.

 

Module 2: NEUROPHYSIOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM. 

Teacher: Giorgio Aicardi

Nervous system

Anatomo-functional organization of the nervous system

Principal functional elements of the nervous system. Classification of neurons, nerve fibers and glial cells. Functional organization of the central and peripheral nervous system. Blood-brain barrier.

Sensory systems

General principles of sensory physiology. Functional organization of sensory systems. Sensory receptors. Mechanisms of signal transduction, coding of stimulus type, intensity, duration and location. Tonic and phasic receptors. Pathways from sensory receptors to the cerebral cortex.

Somatosensory system. Tactile sensitivity: superficial touch, tactile acuity, pressure, itching, tickling, hair flexion, vibration and stretching. Proprioception. Termoception. Introception. Cortical processing of somatosensory afferents. Pain: nociceptors, transduction of pain stimuli, referred pain, pain modulation. Cranial and spinal somatosensory ascending pathways, primary somatosensory cortex, somatotopic representation of the body surface.

Auditory system: principles of acoustics, functional anatomy of the ear, functions of the outer, middle and inner ear, coding of the frequency and amplitude of sound waves, identification of the sound source, central auditory processes.

Vestibular system: functional anatomy, functions of utricle, saccule (otolithic organs) and semicircular canals, static and dynamic detection, central vestibular pathways, vestibular reflexes.

Visual system: principles of optics, functional anatomy of the eye, optical properties of the eye, accommodation reflex, pupillary reflex, alterations of the optical media, photoreceptors, visual pigments, phototransduction, visual acuity, retinal sensitivity, adaptation to dark and light, neural networks and visual signal processing, eye movements.

Olfactory system: functional anatomy, transduction of odorous signals, central olfactory pathways.

Gustatory system: functional anatomy, transduction of gustatory signals, primary gustatory modalities, central gustatory pathways.

Somatic motor system

Functional organization of the somatic motor system. Reflex arc, reflex movements and superior control of reflex activity. Postural control and locomotion. Voluntary movements: motivation, ideation, programming and execution of voluntary movements. Role of associative and motor cortical areas, cerebellum, basal nuclei and sensitive afferents. Somatotopic representation of the muscles in the primary motor cortex. Functional organization of the descending motor pathways. Motor learning.

Higher functions of the nervous system

Associative areas of the cerebral cortex. Limbic system. Emotions, mood, alertness, attention, function of the ascending nerve pathways to the cerebral cortex. 

Learning and memory. Types of memory in humans: qualitative and temporal classification. Synaptic plasticity: molecular basis of learning and memory formation. Long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) of glutamatergic synaptic transmission, role of ionotropic and metabotropic receptors, presynaptic and postsynaptic modulatory mechanisms, maintenance of LTP and consolidation of long-term memory, structural modifications of synapses.

Electroencephalography, wake-sleep cycle.

Autonomic nervous system

Anatomo-functional organization of the autonomic nervous system: sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric sections. Pre- and post-ganglionic neurotransmitters. Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic receptors. Alpha and beta adrenergic receptors. Effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation on various organs and systems. The hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline. Autonomic reflexes. Central control of the autonomic nervous system and interactions with the neuroendocrine system.

Endocrine system

Neuroendocrine integrated functions

General principles of hormonal physiology. Mechanisms of hormonal action. Mechanisms of control of hormonal secretion. Role of hypothalamus and pituitary gland on the control of hormone secretion.

Physiological functions of hormones

Physiological functions of pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pancreatic hormones.

 

Module 3: PHYSIOLOGY OF ORGANS AND SYSTEMS

Teacher: Giorgio Aicardi

Reproductive system

Female reproductive system

Functional anatomy of the female reproductive system. Ovarian cycle. Estrogen and progesterone functions. Endometrial cycle. Hypothalamic control of ovarian function. Fertilization. Hormonal factors during pregnancy, delivery and lactation.

Male reproductive system

Functional anatomy of the male reproductive system. Spermatogenesis. Seminal fluid. Testosterone functions. Hypothalamic control of testicular function.

Cardiovascular system

Organization of cardiovascular system

Scheme of the cardiovascular system. Characteristics of the systemic and pulmonary circulation. Blood composition, volume and functions. Hematic cells. Hemostasis.

Electrical activity of the heart

Electrical characteristics of cardiac cells. Origin and spread of cardiac excitation. Refractory period of the heart. Control of excitation and conduction in the heart. Electrocardiography.

Mechanical activity of the heart

Functional anatomy of the heart. Mechanical events of the cardiac cycle. Blood pressure and blood volume in atria and ventricles.

Control of cardiac output

Cardiac output: normal values and range of variation. Mechanisms of regulation of cardiac output: control of heart rate and stroke volume.

Vascular system

Characteristics and functions of the vascular system: arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins and lymphatic vessels. Hemodynamics: relation between flow, pressure and resistance. Pressure profile in the systemic circulation. Return of venous blood to the heart. Diffusion across the capillary wall. Regulation of local blood flow.

Regulation of blood arterial pressure

Normal values and range of variation of the blood arterial pressure. Mechanisms of regulation of arterial pressure.

Respiratory system

Pulmonary ventilation

Functional anatomy of the respiratory system. Characteristics and functions of the conducting zone and alveolar walls. Mechanics of pulmonary ventilation. Changes of alveolar and intrapleural pressure during respiratory cycle. Ventilation and alveolar perfusion. Lung volumes and capacities.

Exchanges of gases in lungs and tissues

Composition of atmospheric and alveolar air. Ultrastructure of the air-blood barrier. Physical and biological factors involved in oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange in lungs and tissues.

Blood transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide

Transport of oxygen in the blood. Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve, functional implications and regulatory factors. Transport of carbon dioxide in the blood and regulatory factors.

Control mechanisms of respiratory activity

Neurogenesis of the respiratory rhythm. Brainstem and encephalic structures involved in breathing control. Nervous modulation of rhythmical breathing: nervous centers and afferent nervous signals. Central and peripheral chemoreceptors, breathing control by carbon dioxide, pH and oxygen.

Urinary system

Basic renal processes

Functional anatomy of the kidney. Processes involved in urine production. Glomerular filtration: glomerular filtration barrier, velocity of filtration, physiological control of glomerular filtration. Tubular reabsorption and secretion. Renal clearance.

Diuresis regulation

Mechanisms of diuresis regulation. Mechanism of urine concentration: the loop of Henle and the countercurrent multiplier system. Regulation of renal water and sodium reabsorption.

Regulation of acid-base balance

Biological buffer systems. Respiratory and renal homeostatic response to variations of the acid-base equilibrium.

Thermoregulation

Mechanisms of heat production and dissipation in the body. The normal body temperature. Factors that alter the body temperature. Body temperature regulation. Fever.

Experimental activities

Functional activity of neurons. Electromyography. Electrocardiography. Measure of the blood arterial pressure. Spirometry.

Readings/Bibliography

Suggested textbook: E. Carbone, G. Aicardi, E. Maggi Fisiologia: dalle molecole ai sistemi integrati, EdiSES, 2018.

Office hours

See the website of Giorgio Aicardi

See the website of Marco Caprini