29926 - Etruscan Epigraphy (1) (2nd cycle)

Learning outcomes

At the end of the course, through the reading of texts, students will acquire a basic knowledge of Etruscan grammar and vocabulary. They will understand the significance of Etruscan inscriptions in relation to historical reconstruction and social structures and will gain the critical tools necessary for an accurate interpretation of archaeological documentation.

Course contents

This course provides students with the fundamental tools required to read and interpret Etruscan inscriptions within their archaeological and social contexts through a diachronic analysis of writing practices. Conceived as an advanced complement to the Etruscology curriculum, the course offers a specialised perspective that integrates the study of Etruscan epigraphy with the broader understanding of the socio-political structures and cultural characteristics of Etruscan civilisation.

The course is organised into six thematic units:

1. From Annius of Viterbo (15th century) to the present: a brief history of Etruscan epigraphic studies

An overview of the development of Etruscan epigraphy as a scholarly discipline, from Renaissance antiquarianism to contemporary research.

2. Epigraphic practice in the Etruscan world

This unit introduces the principal methodological and theoretical tools necessary for the study of Etruscan epigraphy. Topics include the introduction of writing to Italy, the development and spread of Etruscan literacy, alphabetic models and abecedaries, writing instruction, writing systems, and palaeographic features. As part of this introductory section, the inscriptions from the island of Lemnos (Aegean Sea) will also be examined, highlighting their similarities to and differences from Etruscan epigraphy, together with the methodological issues they raise.

3. Morphology and syntax

This unit provides an introduction to the principal features of Etruscan nominal and verbal inflection, offering the linguistic foundations required for the analysis of the inscriptions discussed in the subsequent lectures.

4. Writing and Society

Late 8th–7th centuries BC

The principal categories of inscribed artefacts from the Orientalising period (c. 730–580 BC) will be examined together with their archaeological contexts. Particular attention will be devoted to the ways in which epigraphy reveals networks of exchange and interaction among elite groups, especially through the practice of gift-giving. The formation of the Etruscan naming system and the structure of society during this period will also be discussed.

6th–5th centuries BC

This section examines the major developments in epigraphic practice and social organisation, together with the emergence of institutions documented by the epigraphic record. For the funerary sphere, particular attention will be given to the inscriptions from Orvieto (Archaic period) and Bologna (5th century BC). The development of literacy and specialised vocabulary in religious contexts will also be explored, focusing on the evolution of epigraphic formulae and the significance of votive inscriptions. Case studies will include the sanctuaries of Veii-Portonaccio, Gravisca, Pyrgi, and Kainua (Marzabotto), considered within their archaeological contexts.

4th–1st centuries BC

The final unit outlines the principal developments in Etruscan epigraphy during the Hellenistic period and traces the gradual abandonment of the Etruscan language and alphabet in favour of Latin. Particular emphasis will be placed on changes in naming practices and institutional structures.

Throughout the course, each thematic unit will include practical exercises based on the Think–Pair–Share active learning approach, enabling students to apply the concepts introduced during the lectures through collaborative discussion and analysis.

Readings/Bibliography

For attending students

In addition to their lecture notes, students are required to study the following texts for the final examination:

• V. Bellelli & E. Benelli, Gli Etruschi. La scrittura, la lingua, la società, Rome, 2018.
• E. Benelli, Formazione delle scritture alfabetiche in Italia centrale. Riflessioni sul caso dell'etrusco e alfabeti connessi, Palaeohispanica 20, 2020, pp. 103–128. DOI: 10.36707/palaeohispanica.v0i20.391.
• V. Belfiore, Etrusco, Palaeohispanica 20, 2020, pp. 199–262. DOI: 10.36707/palaeohispanica.v0i20.382.

For non-attending students

In addition to the readings required for attending students, non-attending students are also expected to prepare the following texts for the final examination:

• H. Rix, La scrittura e la lingua, in M. Cristofani (ed.), Gli Etruschi. Una nuova immagine, 1984 (or subsequent editions), pp. 199–227.
• E. Benelli, Lingua ed epigrafia, in G. Bartoloni (ed.), Introduzione all'Etruscologia, 2012, pp. 419–446.
• L. Rigobianco, Su numerus, genus e sexus. Elementi per una grammatica dell'etrusco, Rome, 2013, pp. 11–36 (Chapter 1).
• Gli Etruschi maestri di scrittura. Società e cultura nell'Italia antica (Exhibition Catalogue), Milan, 2016: students are required to study the four essays included in Parts II and III of the catalogue and to read the accompanying catalogue entries.

All the required bibliography is available at the Archaeology Library of the Department of History and Cultures (Dipartimento di Storia Culture Civiltà).

Teaching methods

The close reading of written documents, combined with the analysis of the archaeological contexts in which inscriptions were discovered, enables students to develop a comprehensive understanding of the historical significance of Etruscan texts within the broader framework of Etruscan civilisation.

The course is delivered through lectures, and regular attendance is strongly recommended. Throughout the semester, students will be informed of relevant conferences and seminars and will be provided with recommendations for further reading on specific topics.

Classes follow the University's standard academic quarter-hour convention, unless otherwise agreed during the introductory lecture.

Students wishing to complement the course with practical training may participate in the laboratory activities offered by the Department of History and Cultures. In particular, the LEE – Laboratory of Etruscan Epigraphy (https://site.unibo.it/zich/it ) provides an excellent opportunity to deepen the topics covered in class through hands-on activities, museum visits, and both individual and group projects. The Laboratory therefore represents the ideal practical complement to the Etruscan Epigraphy course.

Assessment methods

Assessment consists of an oral examination. The examination begins with the reading and interpretation of an Etruscan inscription, followed by two general questions covering the main topics addressed during the course. The inscriptions that may be discussed in the examination will be identified and analysed during the lectures.

Starting from the interpretation of the inscription and the general questions, the examination develops into a more focused discussion of specific topics covered during the course, assessing both the student's understanding of the lectures and their knowledge of the required readings.

Regular attendance is strongly recommended, as it significantly facilitates preparation for the examination. Students are considered attending if they participate in at least 75% of the scheduled classes.

The oral examination is designed to assess the student's ability to apply acquired knowledge critically and to establish logical connections between different aspects of the subject. Final grades will be awarded according to the following criteria:

• 18–19: Limited preparation covering only a small number of course topics; analytical skills demonstrated only with substantial guidance from the instructor; generally correct use of language.
• 20–24: Preparation covering a limited range of course topics; ability to carry out independent analysis only in relatively straightforward contexts; correct use of disciplinary terminology.
• 25–29: Good preparation across a broad range of course topics; ability to undertake independent critical analysis; confident command of subject-specific terminology.
• 30–30 with honours: Comprehensive preparation covering all course topics; ability to conduct independent critical analysis, establish meaningful connections between different themes, and develop well-reasoned arguments; excellent command of subject-specific terminology and strong capacity for critical reflection.

Students with Specific Learning Disorders (SLD) or temporary or permanent disabilities: see Teaching tools.

International students: see Teaching tools.

Examination Sessions

For the 2027 academic year, examination sessions will be scheduled in January, February, March, April, May, June, July, October, and November.

Use of Artificial Intelligence

The use of artificial intelligence (AI) during the assessment is strictly prohibited. Any use of AI tools during the examination constitutes a violation of the University's principles of academic integrity.

Teaching tools

Throughout the course, lectures will be supported by visual teaching materials, primarily in the form of presentation slides. These presentations will include a wide range of illustrative material designed to facilitate the reading, interpretation, and understanding of the inscriptions discussed during the course.

All course materials, including the presentation slides and any additional teaching resources, will be made available to students through the University's Virtuale e-learning platform.

Students with Specific Learning Disorders (SLD) or temporary or permanent disabilities are encouraged to contact the University's dedicated support service as early as possible (https://site.unibo.it/studenti-con-disabilita-e-dsa/en ). Appropriate accommodations may be proposed by the service and must be submitted to the instructor for approval at least 15 days before the examination. Any accommodations will be evaluated in light of the course learning outcomes.

International students will be supported throughout the course and in preparing for the examination through individual meetings with the instructor, access to foreign-language bibliography where appropriate, and the use of concept maps. Students are encouraged to communicate any specific learning needs at the beginning of the course or by contacting the instructor via email.

Office hours

See the website of Andrea Gaucci