00444 - Human Physiology

Learning outcomes

At the end of the course the student: - knows the general physiological processes and functional mechanisms of excitable cells; - knows the physiological bases of the contractility of muscle tissues and the main functional characteristics of skeletal muscles and the modulation of force and is able to use this knowledge for the purposes of training methods and motor activity programs; - knows the principles of sensory-motor and visceral integration of the human body, with particular regard to neuromotor control and is able to use this knowledge for the purposes of human movement methodologies and physical exercise programs; - knows the neurophysiological basis of higher integrative nervous functions, such as alertness, attention, memory, learning and language; - knows the basic functional mechanisms of homeostasis of the internal medium, from the cellular level to the integrated level of organs, systems and apparatuses; - will be able to describe the basic functions of the endocrine, reproductive, circulatory, respiratory, urinary, and gastrointestinal systems and the dynamic integration of their functions for the maintenance of the normal conditions of survival and health of the human organism; - will be able to detect and evaluate the main cardio-circulatory and respiratory functional parameters of subjects in normal and resting conditions.

 

Course contents

MODULE 1: NEUROPHYSIOLOGY AND MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY I

Cellular physiology

Diffusion and transport across the plasma membrane

Composition of intracellular and extracellular compartments. Homeostasis. Functional features of the plasma membrane. Mechanisms of diffusion and transport across the plasma membrane. Osmosis. Plasma membrane ion channels. Membrane receptors.

Ionic equilibria and membrane potentials

Ion fluxes and equilibria, electrochemical equilibrium potential, Nernst equation. Physico-chemical basis of the resting membrane potential, Goldman equation, role of the sodium-potassium pump. Graduated potentials. Pacemaker activity. Action potential: genesis, ion fluxes of depolarization and repolarization; propagation in myelinated and unmyelinated fibers.

Synaptic transmission

Chemical and electrical synapses. Presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms of chemical transmission. Postsynaptic excitatory and inhibitory potentials. Neurotransmitters: synthesis, release, interaction with membrane receptors, inactivation.

Skeletal muscle cell

Structure of the skeletal muscle cell. Transmission of the action potential in the neuromuscular synapseExcitation-contraction coupling. Molecular mechanism of contraction. Isotonic and isometric contraction. Graduation of strength in the muscle contraction. Skeletal muscle cell metabolism. Functional characteristics of oxidative and glycolytic skeletal muscle cells. Motor units. Muscular hypotrophy and hypertrophy. Effects of physical training.

Smooth muscle cell

Structure of the smooth muscle cell. Single-unit and multi-unit smooth muscles. Molecular mechanisms and control of contraction. Pacemaker activity and neural, hormonal, mechanical and chemical modulation of single-unit smooth muscles contraction.

Functional organization of the nervous system

Principal functional elements of the nervous system. Classification of neurons, nerve fibers and glial cells. Functional organization of the central and peripheral nervous system. Support and protection of the brain. Blood-brain barrier and blood-liquor barrier. Somatic and visceral sensory-motor integration.

Sensory systems

General principles of sensory physiology. Sensations and perceptions. Functional organization of sensory systems. Structure, function and classification of sensory receptors. Coding of sensory stimuli: mechanisms of receptor transduction, coding of stimulus type, intensity, duration and localization. Tonic and phasic receptors. Projection pathways from sensory receptors to the cerebral cortex.

Somatosensory system

Tactile sensitivity: tactile receptors, surface touch, tactile acuity, pressure, itching, tickling, bending of hair, vibration and stretching. Proprioception. Thermoception. Introception. Cortical processing of somatosensory inputs. Cranial and spinal somatosensory ascending pathways, primary somatosensory cortex, somatotopic representation of the body surface. Pain: nociceptors, transduction of pain stimuli, referred pain, endogenous modulation of pain.

MODULE 2: NEUROPHYSIOLOGY AND MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY 2

Auditory system

Principles of acoustics, functional anatomy of the ear, functions of the outer, middle and inner ear; coding of frequency and amplitude of sound waves, localization of the sound source, relationship between hearing threshold and frequency of sounds, central auditory processes.

Vestibular system

Structure and physiological functions of the otolithic organs, utricle and saccule, and the semicircular canals; static and dynamic detection, central vestibular pathways, vestibular reflexes.

Visual system

Principles of optics, functional anatomy of the eye, optical properties of the eye, accommodation reflex, pupillary reflex, alterations of the optical media. Photoreceptors, visual pigments, phototransduction, visual acuity, retinal sensitivity, adaptation to dark and light, neural networks and central processing of visual signals, eye movements.

Olfactory system

Olfactory epithelium, olfactory neurons, transduction of odorous signals, central olfactory pathways.

Taste system

Taste buds, gustatory buttons, transduction of taste signals, primary taste modalities, central taste pathways.

Somatic motor nervous system

Functional organization of the somatic motor nervous system. Mechanisms of modulation of muscular strength.

Reflex movements

Reflex arcs. Spinal reflexes: stretch reflex, tendon reflex, flexor reflex, crossed extensor reflex. Central control of reflex responses.

Postural control and locomotion

Postural control: maintaining the upright posture with respect to gravity, postural adjustments that anticipate imbalances caused by voluntary movements, adaptation to environmental conditions; nervous structures involved. Locomotion: origin of the locomotor rhythm, descending control from higher structures and integration with ascending sensory information; nervous structures involved.

Voluntary movements

Motivation, ideation, planning and execution of voluntary movements. Role of association and motor cortical areas, cerebellum, basal nuclei, thalamus, brainstem nuclei and sensory input. Somatotopic representation of the skeletal muscles in the primary motor cortex. Functional organization of the descending motor pathways. Motor learning and motor memory formation.

Autonomic nervous system

Functional organization of the autonomic nervous system: sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric sections. Autonomic reflexes. Pre- and post-ganglionic neurotransmitters. Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic receptors. Alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors. Functional significance and effects of orthosympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation on various organs and systems. Central control of the autonomic nervous system and interactions with the neuroendocrine system.

Higher functions of the nervous system

Association areas of the cerebral cortex. Neural centers of language. Limbic system. Emotions, mood, alertness, attention, function of the ascending cholinergic, noradrenergic, dopaminergic and serotonergic neural pathways. Learning and memory. Types of memory in humans: qualitative and temporal classification. Synaptic plasticity: molecular basis of learning and memory formation. Long-term enhancement (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) of glutamate synaptic transmission, role of ionotropic and metabotropic receptors, presynaptic and postsynaptic modulatory mechanisms, maintenance of LTP and long-term memory consolidation, structural modifications of the synapses. Electroencephalography, wake-sleep cycle.

MODULE 3: PHYSIOLOGY OF ORGANS AND SYSTEMS

Endocrine system

General principles of endocrine physiology. Mechanisms of hormonal action. Mechanisms of control of hormonal secretion. Neuroendocrine integrated functions. Role of hypothalamus and pituitary gland on the control of hormonal secretion. Physiological functions of pituitary, pancreatic, adrenal, thyroid and parathyroid hormones. Mechanisms of regulation of calcium and glucose blood levels.

Reproductive system

Female reproductive system

Functional anatomy of the female reproductive system. Ovarian cycle. Estrogen and progesterone functions. Endometrial cycle. Hypothalamic control of ovarian function. Fertilization. Hormonal factors during pregnancy, delivery and lactation.

Male reproductive system

Functional anatomy of the male reproductive system. Spermatogenesis. Seminal fluid. Testosterone functions. Hypothalamic control of testicular function.

Cardiovascular system

Functional organization of the cardiovascular system

Scheme of the cardiovascular system. Functional characteristics of the systemic and pulmonary circulation. Blood composition, volume and functions. Hematic cells. Hemostasis.

Electrical activity of the heart

Electrical characteristics of cardiac cells. Origin and spread of cardiac excitation. Refractory period of the heart. Control of excitation and conduction in the heart. Electrocardiography.

Mechanical activity of the heart

Functional anatomy of the heart. Mechanical events of the cardiac cycle. Blood pressure and blood volume in atria and ventricles.

Control of cardiac output

Cardiac output: normal values and range of variation. Mechanisms of regulation of cardiac output: control of heart rate and stroke volume.

Vascular system

Characteristics and functions of the vascular system: arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins and lymphatic vessels. Hemodynamics: relation between flow, pressure and resistance. Pressure profile in the systemic circulation. Return of venous blood to the heart. Diffusion across the capillary wall. Regulation of local blood flow.

Regulation of blood arterial pressure

Normal values and range of variation of the blood arterial pressure. Mechanisms of regulation of arterial pressure.

Cardiovascular functions during physical exercise

Changes in cardiac output, arterial pressure and venous return during physical exercise. Redistribution of blood flow and integration of cardio-vascular responses during physical exercise.

Respiratory system

Pulmonary ventilation

Functional anatomy of the respiratory system. Characteristics and functions of the conducting zone and alveolar walls. Mechanics of pulmonary ventilation. Changes of alveolar and intrapleural pressure during respiratory cycle. Ventilation and alveolar perfusion. Lung volumes and capacities.

Exchanges of gases in lungs and tissues

Composition of atmospheric and alveolar air. Ultrastructure of the air-blood barrier. Physical and biological factors involved in oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange in lungs and tissues.

Blood transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide

Transport of oxygen in the blood. Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve, functional implications and regulatory factors. Transport of carbon dioxide in the blood and regulatory factors.

Control mechanisms of respiratory activity

Neurogenesis of the respiratory rhythm. Brain structures involved in breathing control. Central and peripheral chemoreceptors, breathing control by carbon dioxide, pH and oxygen.

Urinary system

Basic renal processes

Functional anatomy of the kidney. Processes involved in urine production. Glomerular filtration: glomerular filtration barrier, velocity of filtration, physiological control of glomerular filtration. Tubular reabsorption and secretion.

Diuresis regulation

Mechanisms of urine concentration. The loop of Henle and the countercurrent multiplier system. Regulation of renal water and sodium reabsorption: role of antidiuretic hormone and aldosterone. Urination.

Regulation of acid-base balance

Biological buffer systems. Respiratory and renal homeostatic response to variations of the acid-base equilibrium.

Thermoregulation

Physiological mechanisms of heat production and loss. The normal body temperature. Factors affecting body temperature. Body temperature regulation. Fever.

Gastrointestinal system

Motor and secretory functions of the gastrointestinal system

Nervous and hormonal control of the functions of the digestive system. Chewing. Salivary secretion. Swallowing. Gastric motility and secretion. Vomit. Pancreatic and biliary secretion. Emptying of the gallbladder. Motility and secretions of the small and large intestine. Defecation.

Digestion and absorption

Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. Functions of the intestinal microbiota.

Readings/Bibliography

G. Aicardi, V. Carabelli, E. Carbone, R. Maggi. Fisiologia: dalle molecole ai sistemi integrati (terza edizione). EdiSES, 2025. ISBN 9788836232308.

Teaching methods

Lectures using Power Point presentations.

Exercises showing how to perform the following functional tests in humans: electromyography, electrocardiography, blood pressure measurement, and spirometry.

Assessment methods

The learning assessment consists of two tests, each one divided into a written and an oral part; the two tests must be taken sequentially (the first one is preparatory to the second one).

1) The first test deals with the didactic modules "Neurophysiology and muscle physiology I" and "Neurophysiology and muscle physiology II"; the outcome is evaluated in thirtieths.

2) The second test (which can be taken the same day or later, within 24 months) concerns the didactic module "Physiology of organs and systems”; the outcome is evaluated in thirtieths.

The final grade is the arithmetic average of the grades reported in the two tests.

Teaching tools

Power Point presentations; dedicated computer equipment and programs for exercises.

Office hours

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