B6178 - DEMOCRACY AND POPULISM IN EUROPE

Learning outcomes

The course aims to give a thorough understanding of the changing nature of democracy in Europe, mainly as a consequence of the rise of populism, in its various forms. At the end of the course, students will be able to grasp the correct use of the concept of populism, as well as to understand the meaning of the rise of euroscepticism

Course contents

For exchange students (Erasmus, Turing, Overseas, …), the course is open exclusively to students enrolled in Master’s level degrees

The course combines instructor-led lectures with graduate research seminars.

During the first three weeks, lectures introduce the principal concepts, theories and analytical frameworks required for the study of democracy and populism in contemporary Europe. Students are expected to complete the assigned readings before class.

From Week 4 onwards, the course adopts a seminar format centred on student presentations and comparative discussion. Each week begins with a short research introduction by the instructor, followed by student presentations and seminar discussion based on the assigned readings.

 

Readings/Bibliography

WEEK 1 Democracy in Contemporary Europe

Monday 14 September 2026

Lecture 1 Why Democracy? Understanding Europe's Democratic Landscape

Research question: Why has democracy become a contested concept in twenty-first-century Europe?

This introductory lecture examines the contemporary debate on democracy, focusing on democratic quality, democratic resilience and democratic backsliding. Rather than offering a historical overview, it introduces the principal analytical concepts that will guide the course and discusses why democracy has returned to the centre of political debate across Europe.

Required readings

Berman, S. (2026). Democracy's troubles should be no surprise. Journal of Democracy, 37(2).

Galston, W. A. (2018). The populist challenge to liberal democracy. Journal of Democracy, 29(2), 5–19.

Graziano, P., & Quaranta, M. (2022). Studying democracy in Europe: Conceptualization, measurement and indices. Government and Opposition. https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2022.39

Merkel, W. (2014). Is there a crisis of democracy? Democratic Theory, 1(2), 11–25.

Recommended reading

Stokes, S. C. (2026). Why elected leaders subvert democracy. Journal of Democracy, 37(2), 49–64.

Thursday 17 September

Seminar 1 Is European Democracy in Crisis?

The seminar develops the themes introduced during the lecture through discussion of the assigned readings and selected European case studies. During the first three weeks seminar participation is not formally assessed, but students are expected to contribute actively to the discussion.

Discussion will focus on four questions:

• Is Europe experiencing democratic crisis or democratic transformation?
• Which dimensions of democracy appear most vulnerable today?
• Is democratic backsliding compatible with free elections?
• Are contemporary threats to democracy primarily internal or external?

Students will compare democratic developments in Germany, Italy, Poland, Hungary, France and Sweden before introducing the following week's topic: the concept of populism.

WEEK 2 Understanding Populism in Europe

Monday 21 September

Lecture 2 What Is Populism? Concepts, Definitions and Varieties

Research question: What makes a political actor populist, and are all European populisms the same?

This lecture introduces the principal theoretical approaches to populism and examines why the concept remains contested despite the growing prominence of the ideational approach. Particular attention is devoted to the diversity of populist parties across Europe and to the relationship between populism and liberal democracy.

Required readings

Art, D. (2022). The myth of global populism. Perspectives on Politics, 20(3), 999–1011.

Carrión, J. F. (2025). Populism and democracy: What we know and don't know. Political Science Quarterly. Advance online publication.

Mudde, C. (2021). Populism in Europe: An illiberal democratic response to undemocratic liberalism. Government and Opposition, 56(4), 577–597.

Urbinati, N. (2019). Political theory of populism. Annual Review of Political Science, 22, 111–127.

Recommended reading

Rovira Kaltwasser, C., & Taggart, P. (2025). Populism and democracy: Mapping the field. PS: Political Science & Politics, 58(1), 69–71.

Thursday 24 September

Seminar 2 Comparing European Populisms

The seminar applies the conceptual approaches introduced during the lecture to contemporary European parties, asking whether a single theory adequately explains the diversity of European populism.

Discussion will address the following questions:

• Is the ideational approach sufficiently broad?
• Are all European populist parties equally anti-system?
• Does Zulianello's classification improve our understanding of party competition?
• Should populism continue to be treated as a single concept?

Working in small groups, students compare parties such as Fratelli d'Italia, AfD, PiS, Vox, PVV and Rassemblement National using the analytical frameworks proposed by Mudde and Zulianello.

Required readings

Carrión, J. F. (2025). Populism and democracy: What we know and don't know. Political Science Quarterly.

Mudde, C. (2021). Populism in Europe: An illiberal democratic response to undemocratic liberalism. Government and Opposition, 56(4), 577–597.

Urbinati, N. (2019). Political theory of populism. Annual Review of Political Science, 22, 111–127.

Zulianello, M. (2020). Varieties of populist parties and party systems in Europe. Government and Opposition, 55(2), 327–347.

WEEK 3 Populism, Democratic Backsliding and Democratic Legitimacy

Monday 28 September

Lecture 3 Populism, Illiberal Democracy and Democratic Backsliding

Research question: How and under what conditions does populism contribute to democratic backsliding?

The lecture examines the relationship between populism and democratic erosion, distinguishing populism from authoritarianism while introducing the concepts of illiberal democracy, executive aggrandisement and democratic resilience. Hungary and Poland are discussed as the principal comparative cases within a broader European perspective.

Required readings

Kriesi, H. (2020). Is there a crisis of democracy in Europe? Politische Vierteljahresschrift, 61, 237–260.

Pirro, A. L. P., & Stanley, B. (2022). Forging, bending and breaking: Enacting the illiberal playbook in Hungary and Poland. Perspectives on Politics, 20(1), 86–101.

Vachudova, M. A. (2021). Populism, democracy and party system change in Europe. Annual Review of Political Science, 24, 471–498.

Recommended reading

Stokes, S. C. (2026). Why elected leaders subvert democracy. Journal of Democracy, 37(2).

Thursday 1 October Seminar 3

Memory Politics and the Rise of Populism in Europe

Research question: Why has collective memory become an increasingly important political resource for contemporary European populism?

The seminar introduces the politics of memory as one of the most dynamic research agendas in comparative politics. Rather than treating memory as a historical subject, it examines how competing interpretations of the past shape democratic legitimacy, national identity and populist mobilisation across Europe.

Discussion focuses on four questions:

• Why has memory politics become particularly salient in Central and Eastern Europe?
• Can liberal democracies reclaim national identity without becoming nationalist?
• Should democratic governments actively promote particular historical narratives?
• How do populist parties transform history into an electoral resource?

Students compare the cases of Germany, Italy and Poland, examining how different memory regimes influence democratic competition.

Required readings

Dujisin, Z. (2021). A history of post-communist remembrance: From memory politics to the emergence of a field of anticommunism. Theory and Society, 50(1), 65–96.

Fish, M. S. (2024). The power of liberal nationalism. Journal of Democracy, 35(4), 5–19.

Rosenfeld, G. D. (2023). The rise of illiberal memory. Mem. Stud. 16, 819–836.

Verovšek, P. J. (2021). Caught between 1945 and 1989: collective memory and the rise of illiberal democracy in postcommunist Europe. J. Eur. Publ. Policy 28, 840–857.

PART II

Explaining the Rise of Populism in Europe

Beginning with Week 4, the course adopts a graduate seminar format. Each week opens with a short research introduction by the instructor (approximately 20 minutes), followed by student presentations and discussion. Students are expected to relate their case studies to the assigned literature and to compare different European experiences rather than presenting descriptive accounts of individual countries.

Each student will deliver two assessed presentations during the semester, one on the causes and one on the consequences of the rise of populism for democracy. The first presentation (Weeks 4, 5 and 7) examines one of the principal explanations for the rise of populism in Europe. The second presentation (Weeks 8, 9 and 10) focuses on the consequences of populist success and participation in government.

WEEK 4 Media, Political Communication and Populist Mobilisation

Research question: How have changing media environments contributed to the electoral success of populist parties in Europe?

Monday 5 October

The instructor's introduction examines how digital media, social media, emotional communication and personalised leadership have transformed democratic competition across Europe. Particular attention is devoted to the relationship between digital communication, misinformation and populist mobilisation.

Required readings

Bobba, G., Mancosu, M., Nai, A., Seddone, A., & Vegetti, F. (2024). Investigating media populism worldwide. Journalism Studies, 26, 181–199.

Humprecht, E., Amsler, M., Esser, F., & Van Aelst, P. (2024). Emotionalized social media environments: How alternative news media and populist actors drive angry reactions. Political Communication, 41, 559–587.

Lorenz-Spreen, P., Oswald, L., Lewandowsky, S., & Hertwig, R. (2023). A systematic review of worldwide causal and correlational evidence on digital media and democracy. Nature Human Behaviour, 7(1), 74–101.

Sorensen, L. (2024). Populist disruption and the fourth age of political communication. European Journal of Communication, 39(1), 71–85.

Student presentations

Indicative topics include digital campaigning by Fratelli d'Italia, Rassemblement National, AfD, Vox, PVV and Reform UK.

Thursday seminar

Discussion focuses on the relationship between digital media, democratic participation and populist mobilisation.

Guiding questions:

• Do digital media strengthen democracy or political polarisation?
• Why do populist parties appear particularly successful in digital communication?
• Are communication strategies sufficient to explain populist success?
• How do media interact with broader social and political factors?

WEEK 5 Identity, Immigration, Religion and the Cultural Foundations of European Populism

Research question: To what extent can identity, immigration and cultural conflict explain the rise of populism in Europe?

Monday 12 October

The instructor introduces the principal cultural explanations of populism, discussing immigration, religion, nationalism, civilisationism and identity politics. Particular attention is devoted to the distinction between economic and cultural explanations of populist mobilisation.

Required readings

Brubaker, R. (2017). Between nationalism and civilizationism: The European populist moment in comparative perspective. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 40(8), 1191–1226.

Dennison, J., & Geddes, A. (2019). A rising tide? The salience of immigration and the rise of anti-immigration political parties in Western Europe. The Political Quarterly, 90(1), 107–116.

Inglehart, R. F., & Norris, P. (2016). Trump, Brexit, and the rise of populism: Economic have-nots and cultural backlash. HKS Faculty Research Working Paper RWP16-026, Harvard Kennedy School.

Marcinkiewicz, K., & Dassonneville, R. (2022). Do religious voters support populist radical right parties? Opposite effects in Western and East-Central Europe. Party Politics, 28(3), 444–456.

Recommended reading

Just, A. (2024). Islam, opinion climates, and immigrant party loyalties in Western Europe. West European Politics, 47(6), 1304–1332.

Student presentations

Indicative topics include immigration and Rassemblement National, religion and PiS, civilisationism and Geert Wilders, Christianity and Fratelli d'Italia, the Sweden Democrats and Vox.

Thursday seminar

Discussion focuses on the comparative importance of identity politics across Europe.

Guiding questions:

• Is immigration the principal driver of European populism?
• How important is religion in different European contexts?
• Does civilisationism better explain contemporary populism than traditional nationalism?
• Are cultural explanations sufficient on their own?

WEEK 6 Mid-term Examination, Monday 19 October

The mid-term examination covers all topics discussed during the first five weeks of the course. Students will be presented with four essay prompts and will answer three questions of their choice within 75 minutes.

The examination assesses conceptual understanding, familiarity with the assigned literature, analytical reasoning, and the ability to relate theoretical arguments to contemporary European politics.

Questions will require students to compare competing explanations, evaluate theoretical perspectives, and discuss empirical developments rather than simply recall factual information.

Illustrative examples

• Compare competing explanations of populist success in contemporary Europe.
• Discuss the relationship between populism and democratic legitimacy.
• To what extent has digital political communication transformed democratic competition in Europe?
• Compare the role of identity politics in two European democracies.

WEEK 7 Territorial Divides, Political Representation and the Geography of Populism

Research question: Why has populism developed unevenly across European democracies and regions?

Monday 26 October

The instructor examines how territorial inequalities, regional disparities and different models of political representation contribute to explaining variation in populist success across Europe. Particular attention is devoted to the distinction between Western and East-Central Europe and between metropolitan and peripheral regions.

Required readings

Ananda, A., & Dawson, J. (2023). Cultural liberalism in Eastern and Western Europe: A societal antidote to democratic backsliding? Journal of European Public Policy.

Huijsmans, T. (2023). Place resentment in "the places that don't matter": Explaining the geographic divide in populist and anti-immigration attitudes. Acta Politica, 58(2), 285–305.

Orenstein, M. A., & Bugarič, B. (2022). Work, family, fatherland: The political economy of populism in Central and Eastern Europe. Journal of European Public Policy, 29(2), 176–195.

Taggart, P. (2017). Populism in Western Europe. In The Oxford Handbook of Populism. Oxford University Press.

Stanley, B. (2017). Populism in Eastern Europe. In The Oxford Handbook of Populism. Oxford University Press.

Student presentations

Indicative topics include East–West comparisons, metropolitan versus peripheral voting, regional inequalities, political economy, and comparisons between Italy, Poland, France and Hungary.

Thursday seminar

The seminar synthesises the principal explanations discussed throughout Part II and compares their explanatory power across different European contexts.

Guiding questions:

• Why has populism become stronger in some parts of Europe than in others?
• Do economic and cultural explanations reinforce or contradict one another?
• How important are territorial inequalities in explaining populist voting?
• Is the traditional East–West distinction still analytically useful?

PART III

The Consequences of Populist Success in Europe

WEEK 8 Populists in Government: Democratic Change or Democratic Threat?

Research question: How does populist participation in government transform democratic institutions and political competition?

Monday 2 November

The instructor introduces the principal debates on populists in government, examining whether participation in office moderates populist parties or instead accelerates democratic erosion. Particular attention is devoted to institutional change, coalition politics, democratic quality and the relationship between populism and governance.

Required readings

Askim, J., Karlsen, R., & Kolltveit, K. (2021). Populists in government: Normal or exceptional? Government and Opposition.

Baldini, G., & Giglioli, M. (2021). Bread or circuses? Repoliticization in the Italian populist government experience. Government and Opposition, 56(3), 505–524.

Schwörer, J. (2022). Less populist in power? Online communication of populist parties in coalition governments. Government and Opposition, 57(3), 467–489.

Vittori, D. (2022). Threat or corrective? Assessing the impact of populist parties in government on the qualities of democracy: A 19-country comparison. Government and Opposition, 57(4), 589–609.

Student presentations

Indicative topics include:

Fratelli d'Italia in government

Fidesz after 2010

PiS in office

FPÖ in coalition government

Five Star Movement

The Finns Party

Thursday seminar

• Discussion focuses on the institutional consequences of populist government.
• Guiding questions:
• Does governing moderate populist parties?
• Which democratic institutions appear most vulnerable?
• Does coalition government constrain populist actors?
• Are there common European patterns of populist governance?

WEEK 9 Populism, Sovereignty and European Integration

Research question: How has populism reshaped the relationship between national democracy and European integration?

Monday November 16

The instructor examines the evolution of Euroscepticism and sovereignism in contemporary Europe, discussing how populist parties reinterpret the relationship between the nation-state and the European Union. Particular attention is devoted to the distinction between criticism of European policies and broader challenges to the legitimacy of European integration.

Required readings

Brubaker, R. (2020). Populism and nationalism. Nations and Nationalism, 26(1), 44–66.

Fabbrini, S., & Zgaga, T. (2024). Right-wing sovereignism in the European Union: Definition, features and implications. Journal of Common Market Studies, 62(2), 341–359.

Taggart, P., & Szczerbiak, A. (2018). Putting Brexit into perspective. Journal of European Public Policy, 25(8), 1194–1214.

Treib, O. (2021). Euroscepticism is here to stay. Journal of European Public Policy, 28(2), 174–189.

Student presentations

Indicative topics include:

Fratelli d'Italia and Europe

Rassemblement National and European integration

PiS and sovereignty

Fidesz and the European Union

Vox and European cooperation

PVV and Euroscepticism

Thursday seminar

Discussion focuses on competing understandings of sovereignty and European integration.

Guiding questions:

• Is sovereignism replacing traditional Euroscepticism?
• Are all European populist parties equally Eurosceptic?
• Can sovereignty and European integration be reconciled?
• How has the European Union responded to the rise of populism?

WEEK 10: Populism, Foreign Policy and Europe's Role in the World

Research question: How has the rise of populism reshaped foreign policy and Europe's international role?

Monday 16 November

The instructor examines how populist parties approach international politics, discussing nationalism, sovereignty, NATO, transatlantic relations, Russia, Ukraine and the changing international role of the European Union. The lecture also addresses the debate over whether it is meaningful to speak of a distinct "populist foreign policy."

Required readings

Chryssogelos, A. (2021). Is there a populist foreign policy? Chatham House Research Paper.

Destradi, S., Cadier, D., & Plagemann, J. (2021). Populism and foreign policy: A research agenda. Comparative European Politics, 19(6), 663–682.

Rovira Kaltwasser, C., & Taggart, P. (2025). Populism and democracy: The road ahead. PS: Political Science & Politics, 58(1), 96–100.

Verbeek, B., & Zaslove, A. (2017). Populism and foreign policy. In The Oxford Handbook of Populism. Oxford University Press.

Student presentations

Indicative topics include:

• Giorgia Meloni and European foreign policy
• Viktor Orbán and Russia
• PiS, Ukraine and security policy
• Marine Le Pen and NATO
• AfD and European security
• Vox and transatlantic relations

Thursday seminar

• Discussion focuses on the international consequences of populist politics.
• Guiding questions:
• Is there a distinct populist foreign policy?
• Do populist governments become more pragmatic once in office?
• How has the war in Ukraine reshaped European populism?
• What are the implications of populism for Europe's international role?

Concluding discussion

• The seminar concludes by drawing together the main themes developed throughout the course. Students are invited to reflect on the central question that has guided the module from the beginning:
• Has populism become a permanent feature of European democracy, or is it a temporary response to the political, economic and cultural transformations of the early twenty-first century?

Inizio modulo

Fine modulo

Teaching methods

The course combines instructor-led lectures with graduate research seminars. During the first three weeks, lectures introduce the key concepts, theories and analytical frameworks for studying democracy and populism in contemporary Europe. Students are expected to complete the assigned readings before class.

From Week 4 onwards, the course adopts a seminar format centred on student presentations and comparative discussion. Each week begins with a brief research introduction by the instructor, followed by student presentations and discussion based on the assigned readings.

 

Assessment methods

Student assessment is based on continuous evaluation throughout the semester and comprises:

• an intermediate written examination and two individual presentations (approximately 15 minutes each), designed to assess students' understanding of the key concepts, theoretical debates and comparative perspectives developed during the course, as well as their ability to apply the assigned literature to comparative European case studies and develop clear, well-supported analytical arguments;
• active participation in seminars and class discussions, including engagement with the assigned readings, constructive contributions to discussions, and informed feedback on classmates' presentations.

The final grade will reflect students' overall performance across these components, with particular emphasis on conceptual understanding, analytical reasoning, familiarity with the literature, comparative analysis, and active participation throughout the course.

Teaching tools

power point, videos, etc

Office hours

See the website of Gianfranco Baldini