67117 - General and Nutritional Biochemistry

Learning outcomes

At the conclusion of the course, the student will have acquired fundamental knowledge of the structure and functions of the major biological macromolecules, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. The student will also understand the principal metabolic pathways, such as glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation, and their regulatory mechanisms. Additionally, the student will comprehend the molecular processes by which genetic information is transmitted from DNA to proteins, encompassing transcription and translation. Furthermore, the student will gain expertise in the roles of macro- and micronutrients, as well as nutraceutical components, in maintaining health, and will be knowledgeable about the rational use of dietary supplements.

Course contents

MODULE I: GENERAL BIOCHEMISTRY– Cappadone Concettina

INTRODUCTION: Biological macromolecules; fundamental principles of thermodynamics; solvent properties of water; weak interactions in aqueous systems; buffer systems in biological reactions.

PROTEINS: Protein structure and function; peptide bond; primary structure; secondary structure, including α-helices and β-sheets; tertiary structure, including structural motifs and domains; overview of protein misfolding and prions; quaternary structure.

MYOGLOBIN AND HEMOGLOBIN: Structure of the heme group. Physiological roles of hemoglobin and myoglobin. Oxygen-binding curves: hyperbolic binding curve of myoglobin and its functional significance; sigmoidal binding curve of hemoglobin and its functional significance. Cooperativity and allosteric regulation. Effects of pH and CO₂. Effects of 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG). Abnormal hemoglobins.

ENZYMES: General properties and nomenclature. Activation energy. Active site and enzyme–substrate complex. Mechanisms of enzyme action. Enzyme specificity; effects of pH and temperature. Definitions of reaction velocity and enzyme activity. Michaelis–Menten kinetics. Significance of Vmax and Km. Irreversible and reversible enzyme inhibition. Allosteric enzymes: sigmoidal kinetics, T and R states, and modulators. Covalent regulation through phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. Regulation by proteolytic activation, including zymogens. Isoenzymes.

NUCLEOTIDES: Nucleoside mono-, di-, and triphosphates. ATP. Biological functions of nucleotides. Cyclic nucleotides: cAMP and cGMP.

LIPIDS: Structure and function of fatty acids, triacylglycerols, glycerophospholipids, sphyngophospholipids, and cholesterol.

MEMBRANES: Phospholipid bilayer; fluid mosaic model; membrane asymmetry; membrane proteins; relative membrane composition; membrane fluidity and the role of cholesterol. Lipid rafts. Selective permeability. Membrane transport: passive and active transport.

SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION: Signaling molecules, receptors, specificity and amplification of signaling pathways, and cellular responses. Mechanisms of action of hydrophilic and lipophilic hormones. G protein-mediated signal transduction. Receptor tyrosine kinases. Overview of defective receptor tyrosine kinases and apoptosis.

INTRODUCTION TO METABOLISM:Bioenergetics and thermodynamics. Exergonic and endergonic reactions. Standard and actual free-energy changes. Meaning of catabolism and anabolism. ATP hydrolysis. Coupled reactions. Compounds with high phosphoryl-transfer potential. Oxidation–reduction reactions. Structure and function of pyridine and flavin coenzymes.

GLYCOLYSIS, GLUCONEOGENESIS, AND THE PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY: The ten reactions of glycolysis and regulation of the glycolytic pathway at its three irreversible steps. Fates of pyruvate: lactic fermentation, alcoholic fermentation, and oxidative decarboxylation by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. Gluconeogenesis: cellular and tissue localization, precursors, reactions, and reciprocal regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. Pentose phosphate pathway: production of NADPH and ribose phosphates.

GLYCOGEN METABOLISM: Structure and function of glycogen. Glycogen breakdown and synthesis. Coordinated regulation of glycogenolysis and glycogen synthesis.

CITRIC ACID CYCLE: Acetyl-CoA production; the eight reactions and regulation of the citric acid cycle. Energy balance of complete glucose oxidation. The citric acid cycle as an amphibolic pathway.

FATTY ACID CATABOLISM: Lipolysis of triacylglycerols in adipose tissue. Transport of fatty acids in the bloodstream. Cytosolic activation of fatty acids and their transport into mitochondria. β-Oxidation of palmitate and energy yield. Overview of the β-oxidation of unsaturated and odd-chain fatty acids. Regulation. Production and utilization of ketone bodies.

AMINO ACID CATABOLISM: Nitrogen excretion; transamination reactions; glutamate dehydrogenase reaction; overview of carbamoyl phosphate formation and the urea cycle. Transport of ammonia from extrahepatic tissues to the liver. Products of amino acid carbon-skeleton catabolism and their metabolic fates.

MITOCHONDRIAL ELECTRON-TRANSPORT CHAIN AND OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION: General principles; flavoproteins, iron–sulfur centers, coenzyme Q, and cytochromes; description of the four respiratory complexes. Chemiosmotic hypothesis. Overview of the structure of F₀F₁-ATP synthase and the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation. Overview of shuttle systems. Regulation of oxidative phosphorylation.

FATTY ACID BIOSYNTHESIS: Formation of malonyl-CoA. Fatty acid synthase. Synthesis of butyryl-ACP. Allosteric and hormonal regulation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Overview of fatty acid elongation and desaturation; essential fatty acids.

CHOLESTEROL: Overview of cholesterol biosynthesis, regulation, and transport.

NUCLEIC ACID STRUCTURE: Phosphodiester bond; enzymatic and non-enzymatic hydrolysis of DNA and RNA; restriction endonucleases; denaturation. Overview of DNA supercoiling in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. RNA: modified bases, structure, and function of the different RNA classes.

DNA REPLICATION: The central dogma of molecular biology. DNA replication in Escherichia coli. Properties of DNA polymerases III and I. Fidelity of DNA replication and proofreading. DNA damage and mutations.

TRANSCRIPTION: Transcription in Escherichia coli. Properties of RNA polymerase. Transcriptional fidelity. Promoters. Constitutive and regulated genes. Expansion of the central dogma. Structure of prokaryotic ribosomes. tRNA aminoacylation.

GENETIC CODE: Definition and properties of the genetic code; reading frames; start and stop codons; degeneracy; types of mutations. Codon–anticodon interactions.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: Cellular localization of protein synthesis; peptide-bond formation; elongation and termination. Regulation of protein synthesis.

MODULE II: NUTRITIONAL BIOCHEMISTRY -Prata Cecilia

FOOD AND NUTRITION, NUTRITIONAL STANDARDS, DIETARY GUIDELINES, AND INTRODUCTION TO CALORIMETRY. Fundamental concepts and definitions.

FUNCTIONAL FOODS AND NUTRACEUTICAL COMPONENTS: Phenols and polyphenols, with particular emphasis on flavonoids. Phytochemicals and their potential mechanisms of action. Considerations regarding their efficacy. Traditional functional foods.

AVAILABLE AND UNAVAILABLE CARBOHYDRATES: Dietary sources and energy value. Role of available carbohydrates in the diet, minimum and recommended requirements. Glycemic index of foods. Lactose intolerance. Soluble and insoluble dietary fiber. Solubility, viscosity, and fermentability of dietary fiber. Beneficial and adverse effects of dietary fiber. Recommended intake levels.

PROTEINS: Nutritional significance and energy value. Nitrogen balance. Protein turnover. Amino acids: nutritional and functional properties. Transamination reactions. Protein and essential amino acid requirements. Recommended daily protein intake according to age. Protein–energy malnutrition. Celiac disease.

LIPIDS: Dietary sources and energy value. Fatty acids of nutritional relevance: saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, and trans fatty acids. Omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acid families. Lipid requirements. Dietary and endogenous cholesterol. Biological functions of cholesterol. Plasma lipoproteins.

WATER, ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES, AND CAFFEINATED BEVERAGES: Nutritional characteristics, caloric value, and ethanol metabolism. Effects mediated by caffeine and other components of caffeinated beverages.

VITAMINS: Nutritional significance and classification. Deficiency, stability, and excessive intake. Water-soluble vitamins: structure and function of B-group vitamins and vitamin C; recommended intake, dietary sources, and deficiency. Fat-soluble vitamins: structure and function, recommended intake, dietary sources, deficiency, and toxicity.

MINERALS: Functions, dietary sources, bioavailability, recommended intake, deficiency, and toxicity.

REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES AND ANTIOXIDANTS: Reactive oxygen species. Definitions of oxidative stress and antioxidants. Role of reactive oxygen species in biosignalling and cellular oxidative damage. Cellular antioxidant defenses. Vitamins and minerals involved in cellular antioxidant defenses.

DIETETIC PRODUCTS AND FOOD SUPPLEMENTS: Dietetic products and sports supplements, including energy products, electrolyte and vitamin supplements, and protein/amino acid supplementation.

Readings/Bibliography

D.L. Nelson, M.M. Cox "Introduzione alla biochimica di Lehninger", Zanichelli , VII edizione, 2023

M.K. Campbell, S.O. Farrell, O.M. McDougal "Biochimica", EdiSES, V edizione, 2019

G. Arienti "Le basi molecolari della nutrizione", V edizione, Piccin, 2021

U. Leuzzi, E. Bellocco, D. Barreca "Biochimica della nutrizione", Zanichelli, 2013

C. Pignatti "Biochimica della nutrizione", Società Editrice Esculapio, 2022

 

Teaching methods

The course consists of two instructional modules: one worth 6 ECTS credits (General Biochemistry) and one worth 3 ECTS credits (Nutritional Biochemistry). The General Biochemistry module is delivered before the Nutritional Biochemistry module, as it provides essential foundational knowledge required for the subsequent nutrition topics. Instruction is conducted through traditional lectures, with instructors utilizing PowerPoint presentations and brief educational videos. No laboratory sessions are included in the curriculum.

Assessment methods

Learning assessment consists of a final examination delivered as an oral interview covering both instructional modules. For each exam session published on AlmaEsami, the student may register either for the General Biochemistry module alone or for both modules.

If a student decides not to attend an exam session for which they have registered, it is recommended that they withdraw from the registry list and/or inform the instructor via email.

Access to the Nutritional Biochemistry oral exam is permitted only upon successful completion of the General Biochemistry exam.

The final grade will be calculated with a weight of two‑thirds based on the General Biochemistry score and one‑third based on the Nutritional Biochemistry score.

 

Students with learning disorders and\or temporary or permanent disabilities: please, contact the office responsible (https://site.unibo.it/studenti-con-disabilita-e-dsa/en/for-students ) as soon as possible so that they can propose acceptable adjustments. The request for adaptation must be submitted in advance (15 days before the exam date) to the lecturer, who will assess the appropriateness of the adjustments, taking into account the teaching objectives.

Teaching tools

The textbook recommended by the instructor is the primary instrument through which the student must acquire their preparation.

All additional teaching materials—namely the PowerPoint presentations shown during lectures and any supplementary resources the instructor deems useful—serve as guides to facilitate the optimal understanding of the topics to be studied.

 

Office hours

See the website of Concettina Cappadone

See the website of Cecilia Prata