00444 - Human Physiology

Learning outcomes

At the end of the course, students will:

• understand the general physiological processes and the functional mechanisms of excitable cells;
• understand the physiological basis of skeletal and smooth muscle contractility, the mechanisms regulating force production, and be able to apply this knowledge to training methodologies and physical activity programmes;
• understand the principles of sensorimotor and visceral integration in the human body, with particular emphasis on neuromotor control, and be able to apply this knowledge to the methodology of human movement;
• understand the fundamental functional mechanisms underlying the homeostasis of the internal environment, from the cellular level to the integrated function of organs, systems, and organ systems;
• be able to describe the basic physiology of the endocrine system and the cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, and renal systems, as well as the dynamic integration of their functions in maintaining normal physiological homeostasis, health, and survival of the human organism;
• be able to measure and assess the main cardiovascular and respiratory functional parameters in healthy subjects under resting conditions.

Course contents

Cell Physiology Body Fluid Compartments and Transmembrane Transport

Body fluid compartments. The internal environment and maintenance of homeostasis. Homeostatic mechanisms: feedback and feedforward regulation. Transport mechanisms across biological membranes and their role in maintaining homeostasis.

Membrane Potentials

Resting membrane potential. Equilibrium potentials. Generation of the resting membrane potential. Role of the Na⁺/K⁺ pump. Local potentials and action potentials. Propagation of action potentials. Classification of nerve fibres. Excitability. Effects of ionic concentration changes.

Basic Mechanisms of Cell-to-Cell Communication

Electrical synapses. Chemical synapses. Pre- and postsynaptic mechanisms. Chemical neurotransmitters. Postsynaptic potentials. Integrative functions of neurons. Visceral synapses. Function of the neuromuscular junction.

Muscle Cell Contraction

Excitation–contraction coupling in skeletal and smooth muscle. Functional classification of smooth muscles.

Mechanical Aspects of Skeletal Muscle Contraction

Motor units. Types of muscle contraction. Isometric twitches. Length–tension relationship. Isotonic contractions. Force–velocity relationship. Muscle tetanus and fatigue. Delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Muscle fibre types. Electromyography.

Sensory Receptors and Their Basic Mechanisms of Action

Classification of sensory receptors. General mechanisms of sensory transduction. Encoding of stimulus intensity. Sensory adaptation.

Physiology of the Nervous System General Principles

Functional organization of the central nervous system. Sensorimotor and visceral integration. Neural coding mechanisms.

Somatosensory Physiology: Touch

Types of somatic sensation. Cutaneous receptors. Receptive fields. Somatotopic organization. Afferent inhibition and its functional effects.

Pain Physiology

Pain receptors and their mechanisms of activation. Types of pain. Pain transmission and referred pain. Peripheral and central modulation of pain: gate control theory and descending analgesic pathways.

Special Senses

Functional organization of the eye. Photoreceptors and retinal physiology. Functional organization of the visual pathways. Functional organization of the auditory system. Auditory receptors and their activation mechanisms. Central auditory pathways. Activation mechanisms and functions of vestibular receptors.

Integrative Functions of the Spinal Cord and Spinal Reflexes

Functional organization of the spinal cord. Motor centres controlling skeletal muscles. Sensory innervation of muscles. Structure and function of muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs. Stretch reflexes. Flexor reflexes. Functional significance of spinal reflexes. Neural control of locomotion.

Motor Functions of the Brainstem and Vestibular System

Brainstem reticular formation. Role of brainstem nuclei in the regulation of muscle tone and movement. Postural reflexes. Neural control of posture.

Planning, Initiation, and Control of Voluntary Movement

Types of voluntary movements. General organization of motor programmes. Telencephalic motor centres. Functions of the premotor cortex and primary motor cortex. Functional organization of descending motor pathways. Functions of the cerebellum.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Organization of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. Neurotransmitters of the autonomic nervous system. Membrane receptors. Physiological actions of the ANS. Autonomic reflexes. Thermoregulation.

Cardiovascular Physiology Excitation and Contraction of the Myocardium

Electrophysiology of contractile and specialized cardiac cells. Excitation–contraction coupling. Cardiac impulse generation and conduction system. Function of the sinoatrial pacemaker and regulation of heart rate. Cardiac conduction times. Physiological basis of the electrocardiogram.

Cardiac Mechanics

The cardiac cycle. Atrial and ventricular contraction. Cardiac valves and their mechanisms of action. Pressure and volume changes in the cardiac chambers and major arteries. Heart sounds.

Vascular Function

General organization of the circulation. Functions of arteries. Arterial pulse. Systemic arterial pressure. Blood pressure measurement. Functions of arterioles. Mechanisms of capillary exchange. Functional mechanisms of the lymphatic vessels. Central venous pressure. Venous compliance. Mechanisms of venous return.

Physical Principles of Circulation

Major haemodynamic variables and their changes throughout the vascular system. Flow dynamics. Hydrostatic effects. Laminar flow and viscosity. Hagen–Poiseuille equation. Vascular resistance. Blood viscosity.

Cardiovascular Regulation

Pressure–volume relationships. Frank–Starling law. Stroke volume and its regulation. Autonomic innervation of the heart and blood vessels. Regulation of heart rate. Baroreceptor reflexes and their physiological significance. Humoral mechanisms regulating cardiovascular function. Regulation of cardiac output.

Vasomotion and Local Blood Flow Regulation

Regional blood flow distribution. Mechanisms regulating vascular tone. Types of hyperaemia. Vasoconstrictor and vasodilator substances.

Respiratory Physiology Mechanics of Pulmonary Ventilation

Inspiration and expiration. Activation of respiratory muscles. Respiratory pressures and their measurement. Lung volumes and capacities. Lung and thoracic compliance and their determinants. Resting position of the thoracic cage. Nature and functions of pulmonary surfactant. Non-elastic resistances. Pulmonary and alveolar ventilation.

Gas Exchange

Factors determining and influencing gas exchange. Function of the respiratory membrane. Composition of inspired and alveolar air. Factors affecting gas concentrations. Partial pressures of gases in air and blood. Diffusion gradients. Regional differences in ventilation. Regional and overall ventilation–perfusion relationships.

Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

Oxygen buffering and the role of haemoglobin. Oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve. Factors shifting the dissociation curve. Oxygen transport capacity. Chemical forms of carbon dioxide in blood. Carbon dioxide dissociation curve.

Regulation of Pulmonary Ventilation

Location of respiratory centres. Generation and maintenance of respiratory rhythm. Neural regulation of breathing. Central and peripheral chemoreceptors. Ventilatory responses to oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH.

Renal Physiology Principles of Kidney Function

Origin of body water. Osmolarity and tonicity of body fluids. Physiological solutions. Glomerular function. Properties of the glomerular filtration membrane. Forces governing glomerular filtration. Physiological values and regulation of the glomerular filtration rate. Filtration fraction. Tubular function. Transepithelial transport. Reabsorption of water and solutes. Tubular secretion. Countercurrent multiplication mechanism. Excretion. Renal clearance.

Regulation of Water Balance

Maintenance of blood volume. Mechanisms of action of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and aldosterone. Feedback regulation of ADH and aldosterone secretion. Role of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP).

Regulation of Acid–Base Balance

Physiological pH. Sources of hydrogen ions. Buffer systems of body fluids. Respiratory regulation of pH. Renal mechanisms controlling acid–base balance. Acidosis and alkalosis and their compensatory mechanisms.

Endocrine Physiology Principles of Endocrine Gland Function

Hormone synthesis, storage, and secretion. General mechanisms of hormone action. Regulation of hormone secretion: hypothalamic–pituitary axis and feedback mechanisms.

Major Hormones and Their Physiological Actions

Growth hormone and regulation of body growth. Thyroid hormones and metabolic regulation. Gonadal hormones, pubertal development, and fertility. Pancreatic hormones and regulation of blood glucose. Physiological functions regulated by adrenal hormones.

Practical Sessions

• Electrocardiography (ECG)
• Measurement of cardiovascular parameters
• Electromyography (EMG)

Teaching methods

Lectures. Simulation exam at the end of the course.

Assessment methods

The knowledge of the course will be verified by written examination.

Registration for the examination is made through Almaesami website. Results of the exams will be published on Almaesami web site.

Students with learning disorders and\or temporary or permanent disabilities: please, contact the office responsible [(https:/site.unibo.it/studenti-con-disabilita-e-dsa/en/for-students)] as soon as possible so that they can propose acceptable adjustments. The request for adaptation must be submitted in advance (15 days before the exam date) to the lecturer, who will assess the appropriateness of the adjustments, taking into account the teaching objectives.

Teaching tools

Wooclap, PC, projector, openboard.

Office hours

See the website of Milena Raffi