91310 - Physiology and Human Neurophysiology

Learning outcomes

Students will understand the main normal functions of the human organism, in its different and progressively more complex levels of organization: tissue cells, organs and apparatuses. Also, particular attention will be given in understanding how the many different functions are integrated and regulated as a whole in the human organism.

Course contents

Introducing Physiology

Homeostasis and regulation of the internal environment. Body water compartments and their specific composition. Notion of acid, base and pH. Diffusion through non-permeable membranes. Notions of osmolarity, osmotic and oncotic pressures. Solution tonicity.

Physiology of cell membranes and ion channels

Structure and permeability of the cell membrane. Passive ion channels of potassium and sodium and their properties. Introduction to variable-access channels. Voltage-dependent and ligand-dependent channels. Transporters (carriers) and their properties. The ATP-dependent Sodium-Potassium pump. Notions of cotransport, uniport, antiport. Endocytosis and exocytosis.

Physiology of excitable cells

Ionic equilibria and equilibrium potentials. Genesis of the basal membrane potential. The action potential: genesis and properties. Point-to-point and jumpy conductions of the nerve impulse. Functional classification of nerve fibers. Synaptic transmission, neurotransmitters and receptors.

Physiology of synapses

Electrical synapses: description and properties. Chemical synapses: description and classification. Synthesis, liberation and destination of neurotransmitters. Postsynaptic receptors. Excitatory and inhibitory post-synaptic potentials. Concept of decreasing electrotonic propagation. Signal integration: spatial and temporal summation. Neuronal networks: concept of convergence and divergence, series and parallel processing.

Physiology of the muscle

Functional classification of muscle fibers (skeletal, cardiac and smooth). Contractile mechanism: excitation-contraction coupling. Neuromuscular junction. Contraction mechanics: simple muscle shock, summation, tetanus. Tension-length curve. Motor unit and gradation of contraction. Smooth muscle functional characteristics and differences with striated muscle. Striated cardiac muscle functional characteristics and differences with striated skeletal muscle.

Physiology of blood and hemostasis

Functions and composition of blood. Hematocrit parameter. Red blood cells and their functions, hemoglobin, notions of erythropoiesis and erythrocateresis. White blood cells: granulocytes and mononucleates, their normal percentage quantification and functions. Introduction on inflammation and immunity (notions of antigen, antibody, innate immunity, acquired immunity, humoral and cell-mediated immunity). Platelets and megakaryocytes. Plasma: analysing the main constituents and their functions. Definition of serum. The three phases of hemostasis. Coagulation and fibrinolysis. Blood Type and Rh Factor.

Physiology of the heart and circulation

Macro and microscopic anatomy of the heart. Common myocardium and specific myocardium. Electrical activity of the heart: electrical and mechanical properties of the heart muscle. Notions on the electrocardiogram genesis. The heart as a pump and the heart valves. Mechanical events of the cardiac cycle. Systolic output and cardiac output with intrinsic extrinsic control; cardiac work. Innervation of the heart. Anatomy of the circulatory system. Functions of elastic arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins. The lymphatic system. Water exchanges between the plasma and interstitial compartments. Nervous control of blood pressure. How to measure the blood pressure.

Physiology of the respiratory system

Macro and microscopic anatomy of the respiratory system. Anatomical Dead Space. Alveolar-capillary barrier. Breathing concept. Respiratory movements. Intrapleural depression. Lung volumes and capacity. Lung ventilation. Concept of gas diffusion and partial pressure of a gas. Composition of atmospheric and alveolar air. Diffusion of gases through the alveoli-capillary barrier. Transport of oxygen and carbon-dioxide into the blood. Dissociation curve of hemoglobin. Notions on the nervous control of breathing.

Physiology of the kidney

Anatomy of the kidney. Structure and function of the nephron. Self-regulation of renal blood flow. Glomerular ultrafiltration: notions of glomerular filtration rate, filtration fraction and net filtration pressure. Tubular absorption and secretion: notion of maximum transport mechanism. Overview of the main ionic transports and the mechanisms of urine concentration.

Physiology of the digestive system

Macro and microscopic anatomy of the digestive system (buccal cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine). Functions of the digestive system. Motility (segmentation and propulsion) characteristics of different districts (swallowing, esophageal and intestinal peristalsis, austrations and mass movements). Information on the digestion (pancreatic enzymes, enteric, bile) and absorption (function of intestinal villi) of nutrients. Daily balance of income and expenditure.

Physiology of the endocrine system

Notion of hormone, exocrine and endocrine glands. Anatomy and functions of the hypothalamus-pituitary axis: releasing and inhibiting factors and their significance. Notions on the action of somatotrophic hormone and prolactin. Neuropituitary and neurosecreted substances. Notions on the antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin actions. Overview of the main endocrine glands of the body and the actions and controls of the different hormones produced (thyroid and parathyroid hormones; insulin and glucagon; aldosterone, cortisol and catecholamines; male and female sexual hormones).

Readings/Bibliography

It is possible to refer to any recently published Physiology textbook, together with the slides showed during the professor's lectures.

Suggested texts to be considered as alternative examples, NOT all to be bought  (in italian):

Zocchi. Principi di fisiologia. Seconda edizione. Casa Editrice EDISES.

Battaglia. Fisiologia umana per le professioni sanitarie. Seconda edizione. Casa Editrice Mc Graw Hill.

Monticelli. Fisiologia. Seconda edizione. Casa Editrice Ambrosiana.

Teaching methods

Lectures using PowerPoint presentations.

Assessment methods

The assessment test is an oral exam. The professor will propose two topics to each candidate to briefly discuss.

Each question is graded on a scale from 18/30 to 30 cum laude. The final grade corresponds to the average of the scores obtained in the individual questions. Failing even a single question means failing the exam. The evaluation takes into account: the accuracy and completeness of the acquired knowledge; the ability to integrate the different topics of the discipline; the capacity for reasoning and making connections between the different biological systems studied; the appropriate use of scientific terminology; and the clarity and precision of the presentation.

Regarding the use of generative Artificial Intelligence in assessment tests, its use is not permitted, and any use constitutes a violation of academic integrity.

Students with Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD/DSA) or temporary or permanent disabilities are invited to contact the dedicated University service in a timely manner to agree on any test adaptations, in compliance with the learning objectives of the course.

Teaching tools

PowerPoint presentations with eventual other supporting material. All PowerPoint presentations shown during lectures are provided personally to students in pdf format in the "Virtuale" online platform.

Office hours

See the website of Marco Luppi