05181 - Physiology

Learning outcomes

After the course, the student:

- will have a good knowledge of the neurophysiologicl bases of behaviour and of the sensory, cognitive and emotional interactions between the person and the environment

- will know the functional mechanisms of organs and apparatuses

- will be able to integrate this knowledge to understand the neuroendocrine control mechanisms of vegetative functions.

Course contents

Cellular Physiology



Transmembrane Ion-channels
Voltage-dependent channels and channels dependent by chemical substances. Chemical modulation of voltage-dependent channels. Transmembrane transporters.



Electrical event of membrane
Membrane potential: physical and chemical bases of membrane potential and resting ionic flow. Action-potential: its origin. Threshold. Absolute and relative refractory period. Action-potential propagation in myelinated and unmyelinated axons.



Synapses
Chemical Synapses: functional anatomy. Presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms of chemical transmission. Graduated potentials: excitatory and inhibitory potentials. Classic neurotransmitters and neuropeptides: syntesis, release, inactivation, interaction with their receptors.



Sensory receptors
Classification of receptors. Mechanisms of signal trasduction. Primary sensory coding: coding of type of stimulus, intensity, duration and localization. Sensory pathways.



Skeletal muscle
Structure of skeletal-muscle cell. Molecular mechanism of the contraction. Excitation-contraction coupling. Control of skeletal muscle. Neuromuscular synaptic transmission. Organization of muscle system.



Smooth muscle
Classification of smooth muscles. Structure of smooth-muscle cell. Mechanism of the contraction. Control of the contraction of smooth muscle: chemical and hormonal modulation of muscolar contraction.




General Physiology

Nervous system

Somatic nervous system

Anatomo-functional organization of peripheral and central nervous system. Blood-brain barrier. Glial cells. Neurons: classification on basis of structure and function. Neural circuits; reflexes. Advanced control of the reflex activity. Somatic and motor systems and their representation on the cerebral cortex.



Autonomic nervous system
Anatomo-functional organization of autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic and parasympathetic section. Chemical pre and postganglionic transmitters. Cholinergic-nicotinic and muscarinic receptors. Adrenergic alfa and beta receptors. Effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation on different organs and systems. Autonomic Reflexes.




Hormonal and Reproductive systems

Homonal control mechanisms

General basis of hormonal physiology. Classification of hormones and mechanisms of hormonal action. Mechanisms of control of hormonal secretion.

Hypothalamus-Hypophysis Axes

Role of hypothalamus and pituitary on the control of hormone secretion. Physiological functions of different hormones.

Funtions of main hormones

Functions of tyroid hormones, surrenal hormones and pancreatic hormones

Male Reproductive functions
Male reproductive functions. Hormonal control of male reproductive functions.

Female reproductive functions 1

Hormonal control of menstrual cycle and endometrial changes.

Female reproductive functions 2

Fertilization, pregnancy, delivery and lactation.




Cardiovascular system

Organization of cardiovascular system

Overall design of cardiovascular system. Characteristics of the great and small circulation. Functional anatomy of heart; structure of myocardium.


Mechanical activity of heart
Mechanical events of cardiac cycle. Blood pressure and volume changing in atria and ventricules. Pressure in aortic artery.



Electrical activity of heart
Electrical characteristics of cardiac cells. Genesis of cardiac cycle. Electrical conduction system of the heart. Refractory period of the heart. Control of excitation and condution in the heart.



Control of cardiac output
Cardiac output: normal values and range of variation. Mechanisms of regulation of cardiac output: control of heart rate and stroke volume.



Vascular network
Characteristics and functions of vascular network: arteries, arterioles, capillaries, veins, lymphatic vessels. Diffusion across the capillary wall. Regulation of local hematic flow.



Regulation of systemic arterial pressure
Values of arterial pressure. Systems of regulation of arterial pressure: short, medium and long-term control.




Respiratory systems

Pulmonary ventilation

Functional anatomy of respiratory systems; characteristics and functions of cunducting zone and of alveolar wall. Mechanics of the pulmonary ventilation. Alveolar and intrapleural pressure changes during the respiratory cycle. Ventilation and alveolar perfusion.



Exchanges of gases in lungs and tissues
Composition of atmospheric air and alveolar air. Differences in pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide in lungs and tissues. Factors involved in gas exchange in lungs and tissues.



Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood. Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve and its functional implications.



Control mechanisms of respiratory activity
Genesis of rythmical breathing. Brainstem-encephalic structures involved in control of breathing. Nervous modulation of rythmical breathing: upper centers and afferentsignals. Chemical modulation of rythmical breathing: central and peripheral chemoreceptors, control of breathing by carbon dioxide, pH and oxygen.




Renal system

Basic renal process

Functional anatomy of kidney. Functions of renal network. Process involved in urine production. Glomerular filtration: glomerular filtration barrier, velocity of filtration, physiological control of glomerular filtration. Tubular reabsorptions and secretions.



Balance of sodium and water and regulation of diuresis
Mechanism of regulation of diuresis. Mechanism of urine concentration: the countercurrent multiplier system. Renal water regulation. Regulation of sodium reabsorption.



Regulation of acid-base balance
Biological buffer systems. Respiratory and renal homeostatic response to variations of acid-base changes.




Gastrointestinal system

Functional organization of gastrointestinal system
Structure of the gastrointestinal tract wall. Innervation of gastrointestinal
system. Anatomo-functional features of smooth muscle of gastrointestinal
system. Nervous regulation of functions of gastrointestinal system: enteric nervous system, sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation, reflex activity.Hormonal regulation of gastrointestinal functions.


Motility of gastrointestinal system
Chewing. Swallowing. Motility of esophagus. Gastric motility: filling of stomach, movements of mixing and
emptying of gastric contents. Vomiting. Emptying of gall bladder. Motility of small intestine. Motility of large intestine and of rectum. Defecation.

Secretion of gastrointestinal system
Basic mechanisms of stimulation
of glands of gastrointestinal system. Functions, compositin and regulation of secretion of : Salivary secretion. Gastric
secretion. Pancreatic secretion. Bile secretion. Intestinal secretions.

Digestion and absorption
General mechanisms of absorption. Digestion
and absorption of carbohydrates.Digestion and absorption of proteins.Digestion
and absorption of fats; role of bile salts in digestion and absorption of
fats.Absorption of water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins.

Regulation of food and water intake
Nervous centers controlling food intake.
Factors controlling the amount of food. Short and long-term regulation. Neurotrasmitters
and regulation of food intake.
Mechanism of thirst; kidney regulation.

Readings/Bibliography

Suggested textbooks:

VANDER FISIOLOGIA- Widmaier et al., 2010, casa ed. Ambrosiana.

FISIOLOGIA - Stanfield, IV ediz, Edises, 2012

for consultation:

FISIOLOGIA dalle molecole ai sistemi integrati. Carbone, Cicirata & Aicardi et al., EdiSES 2009.

Fisiologia – un approccio integrato. Silverthorn. Pearson Education Italia - 2010.

Fisiologia medica. Guyton & Hall, Elsevier-Masson Ed., XI edizione italiana, 2006.

Berne-Levi-Fisiologia casa editrice ambrosiana, 6 edizione italiana, 2010

Teaching methods

frontal lessons using power point presentations

Assessment methods

La prova finale consiste in una prova orale in cui lo studente dissertera' prevalentemente di due diversi argomenti tratti dal programma. Nell'ambito del colloquio verranno anche poste domande  volte a verificare il grado di approfondimento della conoscenza degli argomenti proposti e degli altri argomenti del programma, la capacita' critica di collegare diverse conoscenze tra loro e il raggiungimento di una comprensione organica delle tematiche trattate a lezione.

L'esame si considerera' superato se lo studente avra' dimostrato una conoscenza sufficiente in ogni argomento. Agli studenti che frequentano, e' data la possibilita' di sostenere prove in itinere.

L'esame di fine corso mira a verificare e valutare il raggiungimento degli obiettivi didattici:

- conoscenza dei fondamenti neurofisiologici del comportamento e delle interazioni sensoriali, cognitive ed emozionali tra l'uomo e l'ambiente;

- conoscenza dei meccanismi funzionali degli organi e degli apparati;

- capacita' di integrare queste conoscenze per comprendere i meccanismi di controllo neuroendocrino delle funzioni vegetative.

Sarà oggetto di valutazione la capacità dello studente di sapersi muovere all'interno dei vari argomenti del programma di Fisiologia. Il raggiungimento da parte dello studente di una visione organica dei temi affrontati a lezione, congiunta alla loro utilizzazione critica, la capacita' di fare collegamenti, la dimostrazione del possesso di una padronanza espressiva e di linguaggio specifico saranno valutati con voti di eccellenza.

Teaching tools

Power point presentations

Office hours

See the website of Patrizia Fattori

See the website of Rossella Breveglieri