00443 - General Physiology

Learning outcomes

Basic notions of the cellular physiology, of the functions of human organs and systems, of the vegetative functions, of the neurophysiological bases of behavior, of the sensorial, cognitive and emotional interactions between humans and the environment, of the endocrinological functions. Lab sessions about direct measurements of functional parameters in humans.

Course contents

Lecturers: Prof. C. Galletti (head of the course),  Dott.ssa R. Breveglieri.

Please note that the following program will be applied from the first examination date of the year 2015 for all the students.


Cellular Physiology  

Cell  
Internal ambient and homeostasis significance. Functional features of plasmatic membrane. Membrane receptors. Transmembrane transporters. Transmembrane ion-channels: voltage-dependent channels and channels dependent by chemical substances. Chemical modulation of voltage-dependent channels.    

Membrane electrical event  
Membrane potential: physical and chemical bases of membrane potential and resting ionic flow.  Role of sodium-potassium pump. Action-potential: its origin and propagation in myelinated and unmyelinated axons.  

Synapses  
Chemical and electrical synapses. Presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms of chemical transmission. Postsynaptic excitatory and inhibitory potentials. Classic neurotransmitters and neuropeptides: syntesis, release, inactivation, interaction with their membrane receptors.  

Sensory receptors  
Classification of receptors. Mechanisms of signal trasduction. Primary sensory coding: type of stimulus, intensity, duration and localization.  

Skeletal muscle  
Structure of skeletal-muscle cell. Molecular mechanism of the contraction. Excitation-contraction coupling. Neuromuscular synaptic transmission. Graduation of strength in the muscle contraction.  

Smooth muscle  
Classification of smooth muscles. Structure of smooth-muscle cell. Mechanism of contraction. Control of contraction in smooth muscles: chemical and hormonal modulation of muscolar contraction.  
   

System Physiology  

Nervous system  

Somatic nervous system  
Anatomo-functional organization of peripheral and central nervous system. Blood-brain barrier. Glial cells. Sensitive neurons, motor neurons and interneurons. Neural circuits. reflexes. Control of reflex activity. Somatic and motor systems and their representation on the cerebral cortex.  

Special senses
Visual, auditory, vestibular, taste and olfactory systems: stimuli, receptors, transduction mechanisms, neural pathways.

Autonomic nervous system  
Anatomo-functional organization of autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic and parasympathetic sections. Chemical pre and postganglionic transmitters. Cholinergic receptors. Adrenergic receptors. Effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation on different organs. Autonomic reflexes.  

Cardiovascular system  

Organization of cardiovascular system  
Overall design of cardiovascular system. Characteristics of the great and small circulation. Composition, volume and functions of blood. Hematic cells. Hemostasis and blood coagulation.  

Mechanical activity of the heart  
Functional anatomy of heart: structure of myocardium. Mechanical events of cardiac cycle. Blood pressure and volume in atria and ventricules.  

Electrical activity of the heart  
Electrical characteristics of cardiac cells. Origin and sequence of cardiac excitation. Refractory period of heart. Control of heart excitation.  

Vascular network  
Characteristics and functions of vascular network: arteries, arterioles, capillaries, veins, lymphatic vessels. Hemodynamics: relation between flow, pressure and resistance. Pressure profile of vascular system. Return of venus blood to the heart. Diffusion of gases and substances across the capillary wall. Regulation of local hematic flow.  

Control of cardiac output  
Cardiac output: normal values and range of variation. Mechanisms of regulation of cardiac output: control of heart rate and stroke volume.  

Regulation of blood arterial pressure      
Normal values and range of variation of blood arterial pressure. Mechanisms of regulation of arterial pressure: short, medium and long-term controls.  

Respiratory system  

Pulmonary ventilation  
Functional anatomy of respiratory system. Characteristics and functions of conducting zone and alveolar walls. Mechanics of pulmonary ventilation. Changes of alveolar and intrapleural pressure during respiratory cycle. Ventilation and alveolar perfusion.  

Exchanges of gases in lungs and tissues  
Composition of atmospheric and alveolar air. Ultrastructure of air-blood barrier. Pressure differences of oxygen and carbon dioxide in lungs and tissues. Physical and biological factors involved in gas exchange in lungs and tissues.  

Blood transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide  
Transport of oxygen in blood. Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve and its functional implications. Transport of carbon dioxide in blood. Physical and biological factors involved in blood transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide.  

Control mechanisms of respiratory activity  
Genesis of rythmical breathing. Brainstem and encephalic structures involved in control of breathing. Nervous modulation of rythmical breathing: nervous centers and afferent nervous signals. Chemical modulation of rythmical breathing: central and peripheral chemoreceptors; control of breathing by carbon dioxide, pH and oxygen.  

Renal system  

Basic renal processes  
Functional anatomy of kidney. Processes involved in urine production. Glomerular filtration: glomerular filtration barrier, velocity of filtration, physiological control of glomerular filtration. Tubular reabsorptions and secretions.    

Regulation of diuresis  
Mechanisms of diuresis regulation. Mechanism of urine concentration: the countercurrent multiplier system. Renal water regulation. Regulation of sodium reabsorption.  


Integrated Physiology  

Neuroendocrine integrated functions  
General bases of hormonal physiology. Mechanisms of hormonal action. Mechanisms of control of hormonal secretion. Role of hypothalamus and pituitary gland on the control of hormone secretion. 
Physiological functions of the different hormones.  
Functions of the thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreatic, and of the pituitary hormones.

Regulation of acid-base balance  
Biological buffer systems. Respiratory and renal homeostatic response to variations of acid-base equilibrium.  

Male reproductive functions  
Male reproductive functions. Hormonal control of male reproductive functions. Spermatogenesis. Seminal fluid. Testosterone functions. Hypothalamic control of testis function.  

Female reproductive functions  
Female reproductive functions. Ovarian cycle. Estrogen and progesterone functions. Endometrial cycle. Hypothalamic control of ovarian function. Fertilization. Hormonal factors in pregnancy, delivery and lactation.    


Thermoregulation
Mechanisms of production and dispersion of heat in the body. Normal body temperature. Factors that alter body temperature. Body temperature regulation: mechanisms of thermogenesis and heat dispersion. Sweating and its regulation.

Experimental activities  

Measure of blood arterial pressure. Evaluation of spirometry.

Readings/Bibliography

Recommended books: 
FISIOLOGIA dalle molecole ai sistemi integrati . Carbone, Cicirata & Aicardi et al., EdiSES 2009. 
VANDER FISIOLOGIA. Widmaier Eric P., Raff Hershel, Strang Kevin T.; Ambrosiana Editori.

For some topics: 
Fisiologia – un approccio integrato . Silverthorn. Casa Ed Ambrosiana, 2007. 
Fisiologia medica . Guyton & Hall, Elsevier-Masson Ed., XI edizione italiana, 2006

Teaching methods

Lessons with Power Point presentations. Lab sessions.

Assessment methods

Oral exam, with 2 questions about 2 program topics. Students have to demonstrate a sufficient preparation in both questions to pass the exam. The exam will evaluate if the student has reached the aims of the course: basic notions of the cellular physiology, of the functions of human organs and systems, of the vegetative functions, of the neurophysiological bases of behavior, of the sensorial, cognitive and emotional interactions between humans and the environment, of the endocrinological functions. Students that will demonstrate to know the logical links between the topics of the course contents and to use an appropriate register will be evaluated with excellent scores.

Teaching tools

- Projector - PC

Office hours

See the website of Claudio Galletti

See the website of Rossella Breveglieri